ICEQC-R-2013-13 — Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning

established, resources, teacher, actually require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 1. The classroom condition. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It can also increase class size, divide the school day into shifts and place new demands on teachers who have little preparation time or access to specialist support. These conditions do not describe one uniform learner group. The improvement task begins with a current account of who is present, what language each learner uses for understanding and expression, what prior education can be established, and which resources the teacher can actually draw upon.

choice, between, comprehension, access require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 1. The classroom condition. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Using a familiar language can connect new concepts to existing knowledge; learning the school language can widen participation and progression. Treating these purposes as opposites leaves teachers with an unhelpful choice between comprehension now and access later.

classroom, sequence, displaced, population require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 1. The classroom condition. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The paper recognises the need to balance local-language learning with access to wider languages. It supplies principles for language policy, not a fixed classroom sequence for every displaced population.[REF-24]

require, curriculum, specific, decisions require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 1. The classroom condition. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Its evidence is particularly relevant to early learning, while older displaced learners, secondary subjects and receiving systems require age- and curriculum-specific decisions.[REF-25]

reduced, teacher, service, received require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 2. Improvement aim and causal account. Improvement aim and causal account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Improvement aim and causal account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The learner should participate in the common classroom community while receiving support proportionate to the barrier. The host-community learner is also within scope where enrolment pressure, shift changes or reduced teacher time alter the service received.

attributing, change, training, attendance require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 2. Improvement aim and causal account. Improvement aim and causal account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Improvement aim and causal account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. If schools map language and learning histories; protect planning and collaborative time; provide materials in relevant languages and formats; prepare teachers in active and language-responsive methods; connect teachers with interpreters, bilingual personnel and referral services; and review classroom evidence, then participation and learning opportunity should become more consistent. The study tests each condition rather than attributing any change to training attendance alone.

affect, classroom, improvement, achieve require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 2. Improvement aim and causal account. Improvement aim and causal account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Improvement aim and causal account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Support cannot ask one teacher to remedy every structural gap through personal effort. Staffing, timetable, finance, protection and referral belong in the same account. The later workforce sections show how deployment, presence and instructional capacity affect what classroom improvement can achieve.

certainty, should, remain, visible require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 3. A rapid language and learning profile. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The minimum profile records languages understood and used for speaking, reading and writing; script familiarity; prior school language; last grade or programme where known; interruption; current age; relevant disability or communication need; and the learner's own account of strengths and immediate difficulties. The source and certainty of each item should remain visible.

functional, rather, attach, single require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 3. A rapid language and learning profile. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Learners from one country may use different home languages, dialects or school languages. A child may converse fluently in the receiving language while lacking academic vocabulary or literacy in its script. Another may read the language but hesitate to speak. The profile should describe functional use rather than attach a single label.

fictitious, enduring, judgement, ability require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 3. A rapid language and learning profile. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Missing documents do not prove that no education occurred. A short diagnostic activity, discussion, work sample and observation across several days may support initial teaching. The result shows present performance under stated language conditions; it should not be converted into a fictitious prior grade or an enduring judgement of ability.

follow, responsible, authority, arrangements require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 3. A rapid language and learning profile. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Questions about origin, route, family or status should not exceed the educational purpose. Teachers need relevant language and learning information, not a complete protection file. Access, retention and correction should follow the responsible authority's arrangements.

lesson, language, teacher, capacity require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 4. Planning instruction across languages. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. This is ordinary instructional planning made explicit where language difference can conceal learning. It should not create a separate lesson for every language where the teacher lacks capacity.

through, curriculum, expects, reason require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 4. Planning instruction across languages. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. These supports help make content accessible but do not eliminate the need to teach subject language directly. In mathematics, science, social studies and vocational subjects, learners need both concepts and the words, symbols and forms through which the curriculum expects them to reason.

verify, meaning, through, another require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 4. Planning instruction across languages. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It can clarify instructions, safety requirements, key concepts and communication with families. It may be inaccurate where the interpreter lacks subject knowledge, and continuous word-for-word translation can reduce instructional time. The school should identify when professional or prepared interpretation is essential, when bilingual peer support is appropriate and when the teacher needs to verify meaning through another route.

outcome, language, itself, assessed require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 4. Planning instruction across languages. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Variation supports access and gives the teacher evidence that a quiet or newly arrived learner understands. It should not remove an essential language outcome when language is itself being assessed.

instructional, intensity, subject, demand require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 5. Transition to the language of instruction. Transition to the language of instruction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Transition to the language of instruction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Abrupt removal of familiar-language support can produce apparent compliance while comprehension falls. Indefinite separation can restrict access to the common curriculum and peers. The pace should respond to age, literacy, prior schooling, language relation, instructional intensity and subject demand.

should, reduction, support, rather require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 5. Transition to the language of instruction. Transition to the language of instruction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Transition to the language of instruction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A learner who manages routine conversation may still require support to explain cause, compare evidence, interpret a word problem or write an extended response. Classroom observation and curriculum tasks should guide the reduction of support rather than time alone.

learners, access, subjects, developing require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 5. Transition to the language of instruction. Transition to the language of instruction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Transition to the language of instruction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The teacher should not be expected to accelerate every language simultaneously without considering instructional hours. The education authority should state which language outcomes are essential at each stage and how newly arrived learners can access subjects while developing them.

participation, available, support, consequences require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 6. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Repetition of an earlier grade can appear administratively simple but may separate adolescents from peers and increase withdrawal. Placement solely by age may leave a learner without foundational literacy or subject knowledge. A reasoned decision considers age, prior learning, current performance, language, social participation, available support and the consequences of delay.

knowledge, completion, should, recognised require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 6. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A condensed timetable is not adequate merely because it is shorter. Teachers require materials, sequence and assessment suited to learners who may have uneven knowledge rather than no knowledge. Completion should lead to a recognised next step.

removes, learner, subject, create require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 6. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. If a learner attends the ordinary class while receiving bridging support, schedules and responsibilities should be coordinated. Pull-out support that repeatedly removes the learner from the same subject can create a new gap.

support, interpreting, diagnostic, evidence require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 7. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. General awareness is insufficient. Teachers should practise analysing lesson language, modelling a concept, checking understanding without relying on extended written answers, organising structured peer support and interpreting diagnostic evidence.

sequence, planning, bridge, separation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 7. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Early-grade literacy, secondary science and vocational practice have different language demands. Subject teachers need strategies that preserve disciplinary accuracy; language specialists need access to the subject sequence. Joint planning can bridge the separation.

solely, visible, prescribed, technique require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 7. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Follow-up observation, coaching, peer review and access to materials are required. The review should examine whether the strategy was feasible, what learners did and whether evidence of understanding improved. It should not judge teachers solely on visible use of a prescribed technique.

should, distributed, across, institution require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 7. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A principal who schedules no collaborative time or an observer who treats all first-language use as error can defeat classroom support. Improvement responsibilities should be distributed across the institution.

rather, general, request, practice require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 8. Collaborative planning and coaching. Collaborative planning and coaching to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Collaborative planning and coaching to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Collaboration is especially valuable where one teacher knows the subject, another the receiving language and another a learner's first language. The team should work from a bounded lesson or learner problem rather than a general request to share good practice.

observed, learner, response, feasible require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 8. Collaborative planning and coaching. Collaborative planning and coaching to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Collaborative planning and coaching to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The coach and teacher may examine who answers questions, whether instructions are understood, how vocabulary is introduced, whether group work distributes participation and what evidence leads to adjustment. Feedback should identify observed learner response and a feasible next step.

professional, support, employment, status require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 8. Collaborative planning and coaching. Collaborative planning and coaching to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Collaborative planning and coaching to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Roles, confidentiality and time need protection. Teachers who are themselves displaced or newly appointed may bring valuable language and cultural knowledge while requiring equal professional support and clear employment status.

engage, complex, through, supports require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 9. Materials and curriculum mediation. Materials and curriculum mediation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Materials and curriculum mediation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Useful adaptations include glossaries, bilingual labels, illustrated sequences, audio, larger print, simplified directions paired with full concepts, worked examples and texts at more than one reading level. Simplified language should not become simplified learning where the learner can engage with complex ideas through other supports.

retains, responsibility, authorised, curriculum require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 9. Materials and curriculum mediation. Materials and curriculum mediation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Materials and curriculum mediation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A displaced learner may encounter unfamiliar sequence, notation, examples or historical framing. Teachers should identify prerequisite gaps and material differences without treating the origin curriculum as deficient. Additional explanation can connect systems while the receiving authority retains responsibility for the authorised curriculum.

problems, rather, improvise, silently require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 9. Materials and curriculum mediation. Materials and curriculum mediation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Materials and curriculum mediation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. An unverified translation can change a safety instruction or concept. Images and stories may distress learners or reproduce stereotypes. Teachers should have a route to report and correct material problems rather than improvise silently.

becomes, unpaid, interpreter, interaction require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 10. Classroom participation and peer relations. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Seating, grouping, turn-taking and task roles can widen or restrict access. Newly arrived learners should not be placed permanently together at the edge of the room, assigned only passive roles or used routinely as examples of crisis. Mixed grouping can support language and belonging where roles are structured and no learner becomes an unpaid interpreter for every interaction.

referral, public, questioning, before require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 10. Classroom participation and peer relations. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teachers should check comprehension of instructions, explain routines and respond to behaviour without humiliating language or origin groups. Protection concerns require referral, not public questioning before peers.

experience, displaced, community, learners require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 10. Classroom participation and peer relations. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. School leadership should communicate how resources and shifts are allocated, monitor exclusion and support teachers in fair routines. Improvement should measure experience of both displaced and host-community learners.

account, representative, evaluation, schools require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 10. Classroom participation and peer relations. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It is a contemporaneous programme account, not a representative evaluation of all host schools.[REF-27]

coercive, disclosure, established, referral require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 11. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. They are not expected to diagnose or treat trauma unless separately qualified and authorised. Preparation should help teachers recognise material changes in attendance, concentration, distress or behaviour; respond without coercive disclosure; and use an established referral route.

wellbeing, concerns, appropriate, support require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 11. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Language, prior schooling, disability, health, poverty and ordinary development remain relevant. The teacher records observed educational or wellbeing concerns and seeks appropriate support.

teacher, necessary, classroom, support require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 11. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Telling teachers to refer without identifying an available service transfers responsibility without creating help. Schools should map internal and external contacts, urgent thresholds, confidentiality and feedback to the teacher necessary for classroom support.

authority, addresses, structural, capacity require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 12. Staffing, shifts and workload. Staffing, shifts and workload to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Staffing, shifts and workload to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher-support initiatives should record these conditions. A new method that assumes small groups and uninterrupted preparation will fail if the timetable does not permit them. Adaptation should preserve the essential instructional function while the authority addresses structural capacity.

belong, coverage, describe, crisis require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 12. Staffing, shifts and workload. Staffing, shifts and workload to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Staffing, shifts and workload to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Values and projections in that plan belong to its date and coverage; they do not describe the later 2013 crisis.[REF-26]

equivalents, presence, delivered, instructional require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 12. Staffing, shifts and workload. Staffing, shifts and workload to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Staffing, shifts and workload to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Using the same teachers for a substantially extended day can reduce quality in both shifts. Recruiting additional personnel can expand capacity but requires preparation, assignment and professional support. The workforce account later in this report distinguishes posts, persons, full-time equivalents, presence and delivered instructional time.

script, communication, access, differs require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 13. Family and community communication. Family and community communication to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Family and community communication to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Translation should be accurate and accessible. Written notices alone are insufficient where literacy, script or communication access differs.

understanding, community, intermediaries, confidentiality require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 13. Family and community communication. Family and community communication to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Family and community communication to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Families may hold valuable information about prior schooling and language. The learner should also participate according to age and understanding. Community intermediaries can build trust if their role and confidentiality are clear.

instruction, ensuring, consistent, information require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 13. Family and community communication. Family and community communication to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Family and community communication to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A designated school or authority contact can handle administrative questions, allowing teachers to focus on instruction while ensuring consistent information.

construct, assessed, accommodation, applied require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 14. Assessment for learning under language difference. Assessment for learning under language difference to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Assessment for learning under language difference to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. If the purpose is to determine mathematical reasoning, unfamiliar wording may obscure it; oral explanation, demonstration or translated directions may provide valid evidence. If the purpose includes proficiency in the school language, that requirement must remain. The decision record should state which construct was assessed and what accommodation applied.

merely, because, administer, across require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 14. Assessment for learning under language difference. Assessment for learning under language difference to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Assessment for learning under language difference to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teachers can use demonstration, sorting, short oral explanation, drawing, worked examples or practical tasks. One method should not dominate merely because it is easy to administer across a large class.

subject, achievement, attendance, unassessed require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 14. Assessment for learning under language difference. Assessment for learning under language difference to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Assessment for learning under language difference to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Reports to families and receiving institutions should distinguish language development, subject achievement, attendance and unassessed areas.

occurred, whether, learning, improved require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 15. Measures for iterative improvement. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. These measures show whether support occurred, not whether learning improved.

community, outcomes, remain, visible require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 15. Measures for iterative improvement. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. They should be disaggregated where lawful and reliable. Host-community outcomes remain visible.

subgroup, receiving, understandable, instruction require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 15. Measures for iterative improvement. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A favourable average should not conceal a subgroup receiving no understandable instruction.

follow, evidence, mechanism, feasibility require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 15. Measures for iterative improvement. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The review asks whether the change was delivered, what learners did, what burden arose and what should be adopted, adapted or stopped. Scale should follow evidence of mechanism and feasibility.

By 16 December 2013, the Syrian crisis had already displaced large numbers of children and placed substantial pressure on education in Syria and neighbouring countries. The December 2012 regional plan and January 2013 UNICEF account provide contemporaneous evidence of enrolment pressure, shifts, supplies, teacher and school support, curriculum and language-related barriers.[REF-26] [REF-27]

conclusion, publication, projected, backwards require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 16. Evidence boundary and the Syrian education emergency. Evidence boundary and the Syrian education emergency to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Evidence boundary and the Syrian education emergency to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. They fall outside this report's cut-off and are not used. No statistic or conclusion from that later publication is projected backwards.

numerical, retains, population, source require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 16. Evidence boundary and the Syrian education emergency. Evidence boundary and the Syrian education emergency to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Evidence boundary and the Syrian education emergency to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Operational figures available by the cut-off may be incomplete and rapidly revised. This study therefore uses them to identify support conditions rather than construct a final regional comparison. Every numerical claim retains the date, population and source in the cited plan.

system, original, community, service require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 17. The three conditions under examination. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. **Loss** is a reduction in the teachers available to the education authority or to a defined school population: death, injury, abduction, flight, retirement, resignation, dismissal, transfer out or prolonged incapacity can all produce loss, yet each has a different evidentiary basis and policy implication. **Absence** concerns a teacher who remains attached to a post or school but is not available during a scheduled period. **Deployment** concerns the placement and reassignment of teachers across schools, temporary learning spaces, levels, subjects and population groups. A displaced teacher may be lost to the school of origin but available in a receiving locality; a teacher transferred for security may be present in the system while the original community loses its service.

measurement, substitute, measured, numerator require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 17. The three conditions under examination. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The 2011 Education for All Global Monitoring Report placed 28 million primary-school-age children out of school in conflict-affected poor countries and described targeted attacks, forced displacement, sexual violence and chronic insecurity as barriers to education. Its evidence establishes the scale of exposure; it does not supply a uniform teacher-loss rate for every conflict. This study therefore uses conflict status as a reason for differentiated measurement, not as a substitute for a measured numerator.[REF-19]

replacement, teacher, confirmed, contact require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 17. The three conditions under examination. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A teacher not observed in a school may be on authorised leave, escorting pupils, attending an official meeting, unable to cross a security barrier, working in a temporary site, displaced, detained or unaccounted for. Unannounced observation can establish non-presence at a particular time and place. It cannot by itself assign motive, legality or responsibility. In a crisis-affected locality, any finding of absence requires a dated account of school opening, physical access, official duty, leave status, replacement and the teacher's last confirmed contact.

lawful, reassignment, unresolved, disappearance require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 17. The three conditions under examination. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. In stable administration, a current school code and assignment date may suffice. During displacement, the authority may have to link a teacher to an origin school, a present duty station, one or more temporary sites and a population served. Receiving schools may experience sudden enrolment growth while their establishments remain based on an earlier census. Origin schools may remain on the register although pupils and staff have dispersed. A single location field cannot represent these conditions without destroying the distinction between lawful reassignment and unresolved disappearance.

periods, against, distribution, judged require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 18. Observation population, area and period. Observation population, area and period to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Observation population, area and period to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The relevant population may be all teachers employed by a ministry, teachers expected at schools that were officially open, teachers assigned to a conflict-affected district, or teachers serving displaced and host-community learners. These populations will yield different results. The denominator for an absence rate cannot include teachers whose schools were formally closed unless the measure explicitly concerns system-wide availability. The denominator for teacher loss must identify whether transfers within the system are exits or changes of location. The denominator for deployment must identify the pupils, classes or curriculum periods against which distribution is judged.

payroll, classroom, observation, completed require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 18. Observation population, area and period. Observation population, area and period to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Observation population, area and period to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Armed conflict rarely affects every part of a country equally or continuously. A district may contain secure, intermittently accessible and inaccessible schools. A national label conceals this variation, while a permanent school classification may fail to record rapid change. The minimum record attaches a security-access status to the school and reference period, identifies the authority making the classification, and preserves later revisions. It does not ask school personnel to make military judgements; it records the administrative fact relevant to whether a school census, payroll visit or classroom observation could be completed.

rather, bridged, assumed, continuation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 18. Observation population, area and period. Observation population, area and period to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Observation population, area and period to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Point-in-time teacher presence can show an immediate service gap but is vulnerable to day-specific events. Monthly payroll status can conceal days without instruction. Annual headcount may miss repeated displacement and return. The appropriate publication therefore presents more than one temporal view: current stock; entrants and exits during a stated interval; days or periods expected; days or periods observed; and the duration of unresolved vacancies or absence. Where administrative interruption creates an incomplete series, the gap is disclosed rather than bridged by an assumed continuation.

established, resources, teacher, actually require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 1. The classroom condition. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It can also increase class size, divide the school day into shifts and place new demands on teachers who have little preparation time or access to specialist support. These conditions do not describe one uniform learner group. The improvement task begins with a current account of who is present, what language each learner uses for understanding and expression, what prior education can be established, and which resources the teacher can actually draw upon.

choice, between, comprehension, access require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 1. The classroom condition. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Using a familiar language can connect new concepts to existing knowledge; learning the school language can widen participation and progression. Treating these purposes as opposites leaves teachers with an unhelpful choice between comprehension now and access later.

classroom, sequence, displaced, population require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 1. The classroom condition. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The paper recognises the need to balance local-language learning with access to wider languages. It supplies principles for language policy, not a fixed classroom sequence for every displaced population.[REF-24]

require, curriculum, specific, decisions require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 1. The classroom condition. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The classroom condition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Its evidence is particularly relevant to early learning, while older displaced learners, secondary subjects and receiving systems require age- and curriculum-specific decisions.[REF-25]

reduced, teacher, service, received require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 2. Improvement aim and causal account. Improvement aim and causal account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Improvement aim and causal account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The learner should participate in the common classroom community while receiving support proportionate to the barrier. The host-community learner is also within scope where enrolment pressure, shift changes or reduced teacher time alter the service received.

attributing, change, training, attendance require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 2. Improvement aim and causal account. Improvement aim and causal account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Improvement aim and causal account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. If schools map language and learning histories; protect planning and collaborative time; provide materials in relevant languages and formats; prepare teachers in active and language-responsive methods; connect teachers with interpreters, bilingual personnel and referral services; and review classroom evidence, then participation and learning opportunity should become more consistent. The study tests each condition rather than attributing any change to training attendance alone.

affect, classroom, improvement, achieve require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 2. Improvement aim and causal account. Improvement aim and causal account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Improvement aim and causal account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Support cannot ask one teacher to remedy every structural gap through personal effort. Staffing, timetable, finance, protection and referral belong in the same account. The later workforce sections show how deployment, presence and instructional capacity affect what classroom improvement can achieve.

certainty, should, remain, visible require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 3. A rapid language and learning profile. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The minimum profile records languages understood and used for speaking, reading and writing; script familiarity; prior school language; last grade or programme where known; interruption; current age; relevant disability or communication need; and the learner's own account of strengths and immediate difficulties. The source and certainty of each item should remain visible.

functional, rather, attach, single require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 3. A rapid language and learning profile. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Learners from one country may use different home languages, dialects or school languages. A child may converse fluently in the receiving language while lacking academic vocabulary or literacy in its script. Another may read the language but hesitate to speak. The profile should describe functional use rather than attach a single label.

fictitious, enduring, judgement, ability require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 3. A rapid language and learning profile. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Missing documents do not prove that no education occurred. A short diagnostic activity, discussion, work sample and observation across several days may support initial teaching. The result shows present performance under stated language conditions; it should not be converted into a fictitious prior grade or an enduring judgement of ability.

follow, responsible, authority, arrangements require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 3. A rapid language and learning profile. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A rapid language and learning profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Questions about origin, route, family or status should not exceed the educational purpose. Teachers need relevant language and learning information, not a complete protection file. Access, retention and correction should follow the responsible authority's arrangements.

lesson, language, teacher, capacity require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 4. Planning instruction across languages. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. This is ordinary instructional planning made explicit where language difference can conceal learning. It should not create a separate lesson for every language where the teacher lacks capacity.

through, curriculum, expects, reason require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 4. Planning instruction across languages. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. These supports help make content accessible but do not eliminate the need to teach subject language directly. In mathematics, science, social studies and vocational subjects, learners need both concepts and the words, symbols and forms through which the curriculum expects them to reason.

verify, meaning, through, another require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 4. Planning instruction across languages. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It can clarify instructions, safety requirements, key concepts and communication with families. It may be inaccurate where the interpreter lacks subject knowledge, and continuous word-for-word translation can reduce instructional time. The school should identify when professional or prepared interpretation is essential, when bilingual peer support is appropriate and when the teacher needs to verify meaning through another route.

outcome, language, itself, assessed require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 4. Planning instruction across languages. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Planning instruction across languages to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Variation supports access and gives the teacher evidence that a quiet or newly arrived learner understands. It should not remove an essential language outcome when language is itself being assessed.

instructional, intensity, subject, demand require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 5. Transition to the language of instruction. Transition to the language of instruction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Transition to the language of instruction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Abrupt removal of familiar-language support can produce apparent compliance while comprehension falls. Indefinite separation can restrict access to the common curriculum and peers. The pace should respond to age, literacy, prior schooling, language relation, instructional intensity and subject demand.

should, reduction, support, rather require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 5. Transition to the language of instruction. Transition to the language of instruction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Transition to the language of instruction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A learner who manages routine conversation may still require support to explain cause, compare evidence, interpret a word problem or write an extended response. Classroom observation and curriculum tasks should guide the reduction of support rather than time alone.

learners, access, subjects, developing require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 5. Transition to the language of instruction. Transition to the language of instruction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Transition to the language of instruction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The teacher should not be expected to accelerate every language simultaneously without considering instructional hours. The education authority should state which language outcomes are essential at each stage and how newly arrived learners can access subjects while developing them.

participation, available, support, consequences require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 6. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Repetition of an earlier grade can appear administratively simple but may separate adolescents from peers and increase withdrawal. Placement solely by age may leave a learner without foundational literacy or subject knowledge. A reasoned decision considers age, prior learning, current performance, language, social participation, available support and the consequences of delay.

knowledge, completion, should, recognised require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 6. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A condensed timetable is not adequate merely because it is shorter. Teachers require materials, sequence and assessment suited to learners who may have uneven knowledge rather than no knowledge. Completion should lead to a recognised next step.

removes, learner, subject, create require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 6. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Prior learning, age and interrupted schooling to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. If a learner attends the ordinary class while receiving bridging support, schedules and responsibilities should be coordinated. Pull-out support that repeatedly removes the learner from the same subject can create a new gap.

support, interpreting, diagnostic, evidence require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 7. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. General awareness is insufficient. Teachers should practise analysing lesson language, modelling a concept, checking understanding without relying on extended written answers, organising structured peer support and interpreting diagnostic evidence.

sequence, planning, bridge, separation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 7. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Early-grade literacy, secondary science and vocational practice have different language demands. Subject teachers need strategies that preserve disciplinary accuracy; language specialists need access to the subject sequence. Joint planning can bridge the separation.

solely, visible, prescribed, technique require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 7. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Follow-up observation, coaching, peer review and access to materials are required. The review should examine whether the strategy was feasible, what learners did and whether evidence of understanding improved. It should not judge teachers solely on visible use of a prescribed technique.

should, distributed, across, institution require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 7. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher preparation tied to classroom need to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A principal who schedules no collaborative time or an observer who treats all first-language use as error can defeat classroom support. Improvement responsibilities should be distributed across the institution.

rather, general, request, practice require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 8. Collaborative planning and coaching. Collaborative planning and coaching to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Collaborative planning and coaching to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Collaboration is especially valuable where one teacher knows the subject, another the receiving language and another a learner's first language. The team should work from a bounded lesson or learner problem rather than a general request to share good practice.

observed, learner, response, feasible require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 8. Collaborative planning and coaching. Collaborative planning and coaching to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Collaborative planning and coaching to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The coach and teacher may examine who answers questions, whether instructions are understood, how vocabulary is introduced, whether group work distributes participation and what evidence leads to adjustment. Feedback should identify observed learner response and a feasible next step.

professional, support, employment, status require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 8. Collaborative planning and coaching. Collaborative planning and coaching to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Collaborative planning and coaching to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Roles, confidentiality and time need protection. Teachers who are themselves displaced or newly appointed may bring valuable language and cultural knowledge while requiring equal professional support and clear employment status.

engage, complex, through, supports require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 9. Materials and curriculum mediation. Materials and curriculum mediation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Materials and curriculum mediation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Useful adaptations include glossaries, bilingual labels, illustrated sequences, audio, larger print, simplified directions paired with full concepts, worked examples and texts at more than one reading level. Simplified language should not become simplified learning where the learner can engage with complex ideas through other supports.

retains, responsibility, authorised, curriculum require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 9. Materials and curriculum mediation. Materials and curriculum mediation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Materials and curriculum mediation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A displaced learner may encounter unfamiliar sequence, notation, examples or historical framing. Teachers should identify prerequisite gaps and material differences without treating the origin curriculum as deficient. Additional explanation can connect systems while the receiving authority retains responsibility for the authorised curriculum.

problems, rather, improvise, silently require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 9. Materials and curriculum mediation. Materials and curriculum mediation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Materials and curriculum mediation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. An unverified translation can change a safety instruction or concept. Images and stories may distress learners or reproduce stereotypes. Teachers should have a route to report and correct material problems rather than improvise silently.

becomes, unpaid, interpreter, interaction require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 10. Classroom participation and peer relations. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Seating, grouping, turn-taking and task roles can widen or restrict access. Newly arrived learners should not be placed permanently together at the edge of the room, assigned only passive roles or used routinely as examples of crisis. Mixed grouping can support language and belonging where roles are structured and no learner becomes an unpaid interpreter for every interaction.

referral, public, questioning, before require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 10. Classroom participation and peer relations. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teachers should check comprehension of instructions, explain routines and respond to behaviour without humiliating language or origin groups. Protection concerns require referral, not public questioning before peers.

experience, displaced, community, learners require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 10. Classroom participation and peer relations. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. School leadership should communicate how resources and shifts are allocated, monitor exclusion and support teachers in fair routines. Improvement should measure experience of both displaced and host-community learners.

account, representative, evaluation, schools require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 10. Classroom participation and peer relations. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Classroom participation and peer relations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It is a contemporaneous programme account, not a representative evaluation of all host schools.[REF-27]

coercive, disclosure, established, referral require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 11. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. They are not expected to diagnose or treat trauma unless separately qualified and authorised. Preparation should help teachers recognise material changes in attendance, concentration, distress or behaviour; respond without coercive disclosure; and use an established referral route.

wellbeing, concerns, appropriate, support require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 11. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Language, prior schooling, disability, health, poverty and ordinary development remain relevant. The teacher records observed educational or wellbeing concerns and seeks appropriate support.

teacher, necessary, classroom, support require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 11. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Psychosocial awareness and referral boundaries to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Telling teachers to refer without identifying an available service transfers responsibility without creating help. Schools should map internal and external contacts, urgent thresholds, confidentiality and feedback to the teacher necessary for classroom support.

authority, addresses, structural, capacity require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 12. Staffing, shifts and workload. Staffing, shifts and workload to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Staffing, shifts and workload to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher-support initiatives should record these conditions. A new method that assumes small groups and uninterrupted preparation will fail if the timetable does not permit them. Adaptation should preserve the essential instructional function while the authority addresses structural capacity.

belong, coverage, describe, crisis require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 12. Staffing, shifts and workload. Staffing, shifts and workload to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Staffing, shifts and workload to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Values and projections in that plan belong to its date and coverage; they do not describe the later 2013 crisis.[REF-26]

equivalents, presence, delivered, instructional require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 12. Staffing, shifts and workload. Staffing, shifts and workload to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Staffing, shifts and workload to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Using the same teachers for a substantially extended day can reduce quality in both shifts. Recruiting additional personnel can expand capacity but requires preparation, assignment and professional support. The workforce account later in this report distinguishes posts, persons, full-time equivalents, presence and delivered instructional time.

script, communication, access, differs require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 13. Family and community communication. Family and community communication to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Family and community communication to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Translation should be accurate and accessible. Written notices alone are insufficient where literacy, script or communication access differs.

understanding, community, intermediaries, confidentiality require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 13. Family and community communication. Family and community communication to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Family and community communication to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Families may hold valuable information about prior schooling and language. The learner should also participate according to age and understanding. Community intermediaries can build trust if their role and confidentiality are clear.

instruction, ensuring, consistent, information require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 13. Family and community communication. Family and community communication to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Family and community communication to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A designated school or authority contact can handle administrative questions, allowing teachers to focus on instruction while ensuring consistent information.

construct, assessed, accommodation, applied require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 14. Assessment for learning under language difference. Assessment for learning under language difference to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Assessment for learning under language difference to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. If the purpose is to determine mathematical reasoning, unfamiliar wording may obscure it; oral explanation, demonstration or translated directions may provide valid evidence. If the purpose includes proficiency in the school language, that requirement must remain. The decision record should state which construct was assessed and what accommodation applied.

merely, because, administer, across require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 14. Assessment for learning under language difference. Assessment for learning under language difference to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Assessment for learning under language difference to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teachers can use demonstration, sorting, short oral explanation, drawing, worked examples or practical tasks. One method should not dominate merely because it is easy to administer across a large class.

subject, achievement, attendance, unassessed require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 14. Assessment for learning under language difference. Assessment for learning under language difference to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Assessment for learning under language difference to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Reports to families and receiving institutions should distinguish language development, subject achievement, attendance and unassessed areas.

occurred, whether, learning, improved require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 15. Measures for iterative improvement. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. These measures show whether support occurred, not whether learning improved.

community, outcomes, remain, visible require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 15. Measures for iterative improvement. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. They should be disaggregated where lawful and reliable. Host-community outcomes remain visible.

subgroup, receiving, understandable, instruction require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 15. Measures for iterative improvement. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A favourable average should not conceal a subgroup receiving no understandable instruction.

follow, evidence, mechanism, feasibility require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 15. Measures for iterative improvement. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Measures for iterative improvement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The review asks whether the change was delivered, what learners did, what burden arose and what should be adopted, adapted or stopped. Scale should follow evidence of mechanism and feasibility.

By 16 December 2013, the Syrian crisis had already displaced large numbers of children and placed substantial pressure on education in Syria and neighbouring countries. The December 2012 regional plan and January 2013 UNICEF account provide contemporaneous evidence of enrolment pressure, shifts, supplies, teacher and school support, curriculum and language-related barriers.[REF-26] [REF-27]

conclusion, publication, projected, backwards require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 16. Evidence boundary and the Syrian education emergency. Evidence boundary and the Syrian education emergency to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Evidence boundary and the Syrian education emergency to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. They fall outside this report's cut-off and are not used. No statistic or conclusion from that later publication is projected backwards.

numerical, retains, population, source require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 16. Evidence boundary and the Syrian education emergency. Evidence boundary and the Syrian education emergency to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Evidence boundary and the Syrian education emergency to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Operational figures available by the cut-off may be incomplete and rapidly revised. This study therefore uses them to identify support conditions rather than construct a final regional comparison. Every numerical claim retains the date, population and source in the cited plan.

system, original, community, service require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 17. The three conditions under examination. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. **Loss** is a reduction in the teachers available to the education authority or to a defined school population: death, injury, abduction, flight, retirement, resignation, dismissal, transfer out or prolonged incapacity can all produce loss, yet each has a different evidentiary basis and policy implication. **Absence** concerns a teacher who remains attached to a post or school but is not available during a scheduled period. **Deployment** concerns the placement and reassignment of teachers across schools, temporary learning spaces, levels, subjects and population groups. A displaced teacher may be lost to the school of origin but available in a receiving locality; a teacher transferred for security may be present in the system while the original community loses its service.

measurement, substitute, measured, numerator require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 17. The three conditions under examination. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The 2011 Education for All Global Monitoring Report placed 28 million primary-school-age children out of school in conflict-affected poor countries and described targeted attacks, forced displacement, sexual violence and chronic insecurity as barriers to education. Its evidence establishes the scale of exposure; it does not supply a uniform teacher-loss rate for every conflict. This study therefore uses conflict status as a reason for differentiated measurement, not as a substitute for a measured numerator.[REF-19]

replacement, teacher, confirmed, contact require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 17. The three conditions under examination. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A teacher not observed in a school may be on authorised leave, escorting pupils, attending an official meeting, unable to cross a security barrier, working in a temporary site, displaced, detained or unaccounted for. Unannounced observation can establish non-presence at a particular time and place. It cannot by itself assign motive, legality or responsibility. In a crisis-affected locality, any finding of absence requires a dated account of school opening, physical access, official duty, leave status, replacement and the teacher's last confirmed contact.

lawful, reassignment, unresolved, disappearance require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 17. The three conditions under examination. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The three conditions under examination to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. In stable administration, a current school code and assignment date may suffice. During displacement, the authority may have to link a teacher to an origin school, a present duty station, one or more temporary sites and a population served. Receiving schools may experience sudden enrolment growth while their establishments remain based on an earlier census. Origin schools may remain on the register although pupils and staff have dispersed. A single location field cannot represent these conditions without destroying the distinction between lawful reassignment and unresolved disappearance.

periods, against, distribution, judged require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 18. Observation population, area and period. Observation population, area and period to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Observation population, area and period to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The relevant population may be all teachers employed by a ministry, teachers expected at schools that were officially open, teachers assigned to a conflict-affected district, or teachers serving displaced and host-community learners. These populations will yield different results. The denominator for an absence rate cannot include teachers whose schools were formally closed unless the measure explicitly concerns system-wide availability. The denominator for teacher loss must identify whether transfers within the system are exits or changes of location. The denominator for deployment must identify the pupils, classes or curriculum periods against which distribution is judged.

payroll, classroom, observation, completed require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 18. Observation population, area and period. Observation population, area and period to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Observation population, area and period to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Armed conflict rarely affects every part of a country equally or continuously. A district may contain secure, intermittently accessible and inaccessible schools. A national label conceals this variation, while a permanent school classification may fail to record rapid change. The minimum record attaches a security-access status to the school and reference period, identifies the authority making the classification, and preserves later revisions. It does not ask school personnel to make military judgements; it records the administrative fact relevant to whether a school census, payroll visit or classroom observation could be completed.

rather, bridged, assumed, continuation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 18. Observation population, area and period. Observation population, area and period to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Observation population, area and period to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Point-in-time teacher presence can show an immediate service gap but is vulnerable to day-specific events. Monthly payroll status can conceal days without instruction. Annual headcount may miss repeated displacement and return. The appropriate publication therefore presents more than one temporal view: current stock; entrants and exits during a stated interval; days or periods expected; days or periods observed; and the duration of unresolved vacancies or absence. Where administrative interruption creates an incomplete series, the gap is disclosed rather than bridged by an assumed continuation.

status, subsequent, amendment, history require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 19. A cause-specific loss register. A cause-specific loss register to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A cause-specific loss register to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Death and permanent incapacity reduce the available workforce and may create family entitlements. Abduction, detention and disappearance require a protected status pending verified information. Flight across a district or national boundary may remove service from one population while preserving the teacher's capacity to serve another. Resignation may reflect insecurity, interrupted pay, family separation, housing loss or an ordinary career decision. Transfer out may be a protective measure rather than attrition. Each category requires an event date, source, confirmation status and subsequent amendment history.

disclosing, circumstances, expose, individuals require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 19. A cause-specific loss register. A cause-specific loss register to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A cause-specific loss register to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Inaccessible communications, destroyed records and population movement can make immediate confirmation impossible. Classifying every unconfirmed person as an exit overstates loss; retaining every person indefinitely as active overstates available staffing. The defensible response is a separate unconfirmed status accompanied by the date of last verified service, the attempts permitted to establish contact, and the treatment of the post for temporary staffing purposes. Public aggregates may show the count and age of unresolved cases without disclosing names or circumstances that could expose individuals.

merely, because, register, rebuilt require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 19. A cause-specific loss register. A cause-specific loss register to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A cause-specific loss register to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A teacher who resumes duty after displacement, injury or interruption should not appear simultaneously as a new entrant and as a continuing employee. Return records connect the prior status, any changed school or function, the date of resumption and the workload actually accepted. Reconciliation across the opening stock, confirmed losses, temporary interruptions, returns and closing stock prevents the crisis from appearing to create implausible recruitment or disappearance merely because the register was rebuilt.

converted, judgement, individual, conduct require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 20. Absence where access is unstable. Absence where access is unstable to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Absence where access is unstable to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. An observer who cannot reach a site has not observed every teacher absent. A school closed by competent authority has no scheduled classroom presence for that interval, though teachers may have other assigned duties. A school operating irregularly requires a calendar that records the periods actually announced to the community. These distinctions preserve the denominator and prevent insecurity from being converted into a judgement about individual conduct.

treated, equivalent, direct, observation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 20. Absence where access is unstable. Absence where access is unstable to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Absence where access is unstable to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Sampling must account for remoteness, school size, level, management type and security-access status. Substitution of an easier school for an inaccessible sampled school introduces selection bias precisely where interruption may be greatest. If a visit cannot be completed, the result remains a non-observation and the coverage rate is published. Telephone or administrative confirmation may provide supplementary evidence, but it is not silently treated as equivalent to direct observation.

register, material, published, series require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 20. Absence where access is unstable. Absence where access is unstable to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Absence where access is unstable to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The categories must remain sufficiently broad for public reporting and sufficiently exact for administrative response. An unexplained status means that available records did not establish a reason by the reporting date. It is not a finding of misconduct. A later verified reason must amend the register and, where material, the published series.

employment, status, teacher, concerned require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 20. Absence where access is unstable. Absence where access is unstable to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Absence where access is unstable to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. An absent teacher may create no immediate lost lesson if a prepared replacement delivers the scheduled subject and period; conversely, nominal coverage may divide attention across classes and reduce delivered time. The availability account should therefore show teacher-periods expected, teacher-periods unavailable, periods covered by an appropriately assigned substitute, periods combined or shortened, and periods not delivered. This moves the analysis from personal attendance to educational service without obscuring the employment status of the teacher concerned.

current, population, requiring, teachers require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 21. Deployment under displacement. Deployment under displacement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Deployment under displacement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. UNHCR reported 43. 7 million people displaced worldwide at the end of 2010, including 15. 4 million refugees and 27. 5 million conflict-related internally displaced persons; the publication explicitly excluded displacement arising during 2011. These are population-of-concern statistics, not school-enrolment counts. Their role in workforce planning is to show why origin-based administrative records cannot be assumed to describe the current population requiring teachers.[REF-20]

require, separate, deployment, fields require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 21. Deployment under displacement. Deployment under displacement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Deployment under displacement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It then records existing teachers, displaced teachers who are willing and eligible to serve, temporary personnel, available teaching spaces, curriculum requirements and feasible hours. A crude pupils-per-teacher ratio can identify pressure, but it will not reveal a missing language, subject, female teacher, disability-support capability or secondary-level specialism. Those constraints require separate deployment fields.

interrupted, payment, itself, retention require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 21. Deployment under displacement. Deployment under displacement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Deployment under displacement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Some communities remain, some return, and some schools reopen before official population projections are restored. Moving every funded post to a receiving centre may deepen exclusion in the place of origin; freezing every post at its former location may leave teachers and pupils without recognised service elsewhere. A dated dual record permits temporary reassignment while preserving the establishment decision for later review. The authority should state whether salary follows the person, the post or the temporary duty order, since delayed or interrupted payment is itself a retention risk.

distance, organisation, staffing, requirement require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 21. Deployment under displacement. Deployment under displacement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Deployment under displacement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Emergency resources restricted to a displaced population can leave a receiving school with parallel personnel conditions, unequal pupil access or unsupported additional workload. The comparison should therefore report service for displaced and host-community learners under the same definitions, while retaining the legal and funding distinctions required by the responsible authorities. Equity is not established by equal numbers alone; language, prior learning, protection, school distance and class organisation shape the staffing requirement.

defined, population, verified, linkage require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 22. Attacks, safety and professional status. Attacks, safety and professional status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Attacks, safety and professional status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. These grave violations affect education personnel and pupil access, but incident data and teacher workforce data serve different purposes. An incident count must not be converted into a teacher attrition rate without a defined population and verified linkage.[REF-21]

safety, indicate, reporting, coverage require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 22. Attacks, safety and professional status. Attacks, safety and professional status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Attacks, safety and professional status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It should avoid collecting operational details beyond its educational and protection mandate. Public reporting should aggregate where disclosure could identify a person, route or vulnerable site. The absence of a verified incident in an inaccessible area does not establish safety; it may indicate weak reporting coverage.

without, treating, teachers, interchangeable require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 22. Attacks, safety and professional status. Attacks, safety and professional status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Attacks, safety and professional status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Housing, transport, communication, school location, accompaniment rules and predictable payment can determine whether a post can be held. Women teachers may face distinct travel, harassment and family constraints, while their absence can reduce participation for girls in settings where families seek female staff. Disability and health conditions can likewise make a formally available placement unusable. Deployment review must therefore examine reasonable support and differentiated risk without treating teachers as interchangeable units.

itself, departure, weaken, reconciliation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 22. Attacks, safety and professional status. Attacks, safety and professional status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Attacks, safety and professional status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Crisis does not remove the need for fair procedures. Protective transfer, temporary reassignment and accelerated recruitment should have a legal basis, a stated duration, review arrangements and an avenue for correction. Emergency need may require flexibility, but ambiguity about status, pay and duty location can itself drive departure and weaken later reconciliation.[REF-02]

movements, between, origin, receiving require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 23. Recent disruption in the Middle East and North Africa. Recent disruption in the Middle East and North Africa to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Recent disruption in the Middle East and North Africa to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The available international statistics did not yet provide a complete annual account of the resulting teacher workforce. This report therefore does not present a regional loss total or claim that one pattern applies across the region. It identifies the minimum observations needed while administrative conditions are changing: schools open and accessible; pupils attending by current location; teachers last confirmed and currently serving; temporary learning sites; interrupted payroll; subject and language gaps; and movements between origin and receiving areas.

source, separate, annual, global require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 23. Recent disruption in the Middle East and North Africa. Recent disruption in the Middle East and North Africa to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Recent disruption in the Middle East and North Africa to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. UNHCR's Global Trends 2010 described the position at the end of 2010 and expressly did not cover displacement during 2011, including from Libya and Syria. It remains useful as the latest globally reconciled stock available before the cut-off, but it cannot quantify later events. Current operational counts may be more timely and less complete. They should be dated, labelled by source and kept separate from the annual global stock.[REF-20]

interpretation, component, counts, coverage require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 23. Recent disruption in the Middle East and North Africa. Recent disruption in the Middle East and North Africa to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Recent disruption in the Middle East and North Africa to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A regional mean can combine origin-area school closure, reception pressure and broadly stable systems. The same numerical change in teachers per pupil can mean teacher flight, pupil flight, newly enrolled displaced children, incomplete school reporting or ordinary demographic change. Interpretation must use the component counts and coverage notes.

temporary, provision, national, system require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 24. Humanitarian assistance, public authority and continuity. Humanitarian assistance, public authority and continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Humanitarian assistance, public authority and continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The resolution provides a public-law and policy basis for treating education as part of emergency response; it does not prescribe a common staffing formula. Education authorities remain responsible for defining recognised service, safeguarding professional status and connecting temporary provision to the national system.[REF-22]

supervision, duration, intended, transition require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 24. Humanitarian assistance, public authority and continuity. Humanitarian assistance, public authority and continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Humanitarian assistance, public authority and continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. For teacher planning, its relevance is institutional: humanitarian finance is time-bound and directed to urgent needs, while recurrent salaries, establishments and long-term deployment ordinarily require a durable public arrangement. A temporary teaching post should therefore state the employer or contracting body, pay source, qualification rule, supervision, duration and intended transition.[REF-23]

exists, authority, responsible, continuation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 24. Humanitarian assistance, public authority and continuity. Humanitarian assistance, public authority and continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Humanitarian assistance, public authority and continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A government aggregate may omit teachers financed outside the main payroll; a humanitarian count may include facilitators who do not meet the national definition of teacher; separate agencies may count the same person at different sites. A common minimum record can preserve each organisation's mandate while reconciling person, site, function, workload and period. The aim is not to force unlike personnel into one legal category. It is to establish what instructional service exists and which authority is responsible for its continuation.

reduction, classes, coverage, follow require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 24. Humanitarian assistance, public authority and continuity. Humanitarian assistance, public authority and continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Humanitarian assistance, public authority and continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. An education response that expands enrolment without identifying the cost of the next school term risks reopening a service gap. Scenario records should separate one-off rehabilitation, temporary learning-space costs, training, teaching materials, transport and recurrent remuneration. They should identify which expenditure can be absorbed into the public budget, which requires continuing external support, and what reduction in hours, classes or coverage would follow if funds cease.

current, location, displaced, teachers require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 25. Comparative indicator set. Comparative indicator set to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Comparative indicator set to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Each requires an opening or eligible population, an observation interval and rules for transfers. Results should be disaggregated by sex, age or career stage where numbers and protection permit, by school level, location and security-access status, and by origin and current location for displaced teachers.

observations, weighting, uncertainty, substitution require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 25. Comparative indicator set. Comparative indicator set to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Comparative indicator set to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. School closure is reported beside, not within, teacher absence. A sample estimate publishes its sampling frame, achieved observations, weighting, uncertainty and substitution rule.

destination, reporting, confirmation, occurs require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 25. Comparative indicator set. Comparative indicator set to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Comparative indicator set to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. National totals are accompanied by ranges or distributional groups. An assignment recorded in the personnel register is not counted as service at the destination until reporting or other valid confirmation occurs.

verification, compress, favourable, average require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 25. Comparative indicator set. Comparative indicator set to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Comparative indicator set to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Loss, absence, closure, access, deployment and instructional delivery cannot be exchanged through fixed weights. A low recorded absence rate may coexist with extensive school closure because only open, observable schools enter the denominator. A stable national teacher stock may coexist with severe local loss after displacement. A dashboard should preserve those tensions and direct verification, not compress them into a favourable average.

decision, attendance, enforcement, cannot require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 26. Interpretation and decision rules. Interpretation and decision rules to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Interpretation and decision rules to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A sharp rise in unresolved status calls for safe verification and temporary staffing. Persistent authorised absence may call for replacement capacity or revised duty arrangements. High unexplained absence requires record reconciliation before any employment conclusion. A wide deployment gap calls for examination of establishment rules, incentives, security and teacher preferences. A high closure rate requires a continuity decision that attendance enforcement alone cannot solve.

equivalent, prolonged, unserved, absence require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 26. Interpretation and decision rules. Interpretation and decision rules to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Interpretation and decision rules to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A school below the minimum number of teachers required to operate its grades or subjects may require immediate action even if the national ratio is favourable. A moderate measured absence rate may require urgent attention where no replacement exists and one teacher serves the whole school. Conversely, a short, authorised interruption with full instructional replacement should not be treated as equivalent to prolonged unserved absence.

indicator, optional, narrative, addition require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 26. Interpretation and decision rules. Interpretation and decision rules to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Interpretation and decision rules to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A falling pupil–teacher ratio may reflect additional teachers, falling enrolment, pupil displacement or incomplete pupil reporting. A higher attrition rate may reflect genuine departure or improved event recording. More recorded incidents may reflect greater exposure or improved access to reports. Triangulation with enrolment, payroll, school status, population movement and incident coverage is therefore part of the indicator, not an optional narrative addition.

This study uses evidence available by 16 December 2013. It draws on established teacher workforce definitions, the 2011 global review of armed conflict and education, end-2010 displacement statistics released in June 2011, the Secretary-General's April 2011 report on children and armed conflict, the General Assembly's 2010 resolution on education in emergencies and the European Commission's June 2011 humanitarian report.[REF-19] [REF-20] [REF-21] [REF-22] [REF-23]

estimates, borrowed, different, population require ### 27. Evidence boundaries at 16 December 2013 to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The principal finding is consequently methodological but not abstract: authorities need separate, reconcilable measures before a global or regional comparison can carry the claimed meaning. The absence of a complete series is itself a constraint on allocation and accountability. It must be reported as missing evidence, not filled with estimates borrowed from a different population.

current, location, displacement, material require ### 27. Evidence boundaries at 16 December 2013 to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. They retain distinctions among posts, persons, assignments, presence, workload and delivered instruction; specify supply and demand; examine distribution, finance and professional safeguards; and provide calculation and review records. In crisis-affected use, every such record must also carry current school-operating status, access coverage and origin-to-current-location links where displacement is material.

periods, timetabling, service, received require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 28. The planning object. The planning object to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The planning object to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. That formulation is incomplete. The object is the sustained provision of instruction by people with the knowledge, preparation and assignment required for the pupils and curriculum concerned. The relevant unit changes as the question changes: persons for recruitment and professional development; full-time equivalents for labour input; posts for establishment control; classes and periods for timetabling; and pupil-hours for service received.

delivered, transition, different, remedy require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 28. The planning object. The planning object to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The planning object to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It cannot establish whether the growth occurred at the level experiencing enrolment pressure, whether new teachers reached schools, whether they remained, or whether their qualifications matched the assignment. A complete account therefore follows resources through a sequence: post authorised; funds provided; person appointed; person assigned; person reports; person is present; class is scheduled; instruction is delivered. Loss at any transition has a different cause and remedy.

provides, teacher, required, subject require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 28. The planning object. The planning object to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The planning object to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The chain does not imply that teaching is reducible to an administrative transaction. It ensures that administrative claims about service can be tested. Professional judgement and classroom relationships operate within the time and conditions made available; they cannot compensate indefinitely for a post that does not exist, a vacancy that remains unfilled or a timetable that provides no teacher for a required subject.

delivering, scheduled, instructional, activity require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 29. Eight workforce quantities that must not be merged. Eight workforce quantities that must not be merged to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Eight workforce quantities that must not be merged to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A **funded post** is an authorised position for which expenditure is provided for the period. A **filled post** has an appointment recorded. A **person employed** is a unique individual with an active employment relationship. A **full-time equivalent** expresses contracted workload relative to a defined full-time workload. A **school-assigned teacher** has a current duty location in a school. A **teacher present** is observed or validly recorded at the assigned place and time. A **teacher teaching** is delivering a scheduled instructional activity.

present, engaged, official, teaching require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 29. Eight workforce quantities that must not be merged. Eight workforce quantities that must not be merged to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Eight workforce quantities that must not be merged to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. One person can fill more than one part-time post; one post can be temporarily covered by several people; a teacher can be seconded to administration while retaining a school code; a payroll record can remain active after departure; and a teacher can be present while engaged in official non-teaching work.

delivery, available, instruction, delivered require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 30. The service-conversion account. The service-conversion account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The service-conversion account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The funded-post gap is authorised posts minus funded posts. The vacancy gap is funded posts minus filled full-time equivalents. The assignment gap is employed teacher full-time equivalents minus school-assigned teaching full-time equivalents, after legitimate central, leave and support functions are separately classified. The availability gap is scheduled teacher time minus teacher time available after recorded absence. The delivery gap is available time minus instruction delivered.

service, variation, unresolved, authority require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 30. The service-conversion account. The service-conversion account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The service-conversion account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A gap can be legitimate: authorised positions may be phased in; leave is a lawful employment condition; professional development may temporarily remove a teacher from class; emergencies may close a school. The account requires reasons and replacement arrangements. Its purpose is to distinguish explained service variation from unresolved loss and to show which authority can act.

quantities, reported, incompatibility, stated require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 30. The service-conversion account. The service-conversion account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The service-conversion account to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Posts cannot be subtracted directly from headcount where part-time work is material. Presence observed on one day cannot be subtracted from an annual full-time-equivalent stock. The comparison must first align unit and reference period. Where alignment is impossible, the quantities are reported side by side with the incompatibility stated.

access, continuity, instruction, practice require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 31. Public-interest basis. Public-interest basis to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Public-interest basis to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Workforce administration is therefore not only an internal management function. Allocation decisions determine whether curriculum, language provision, reasonable school access and continuity of instruction exist in practice.[REF-01] [REF-12]

criteria, resulting, distribution, visible require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 31. Public-interest basis. Public-interest basis to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Public-interest basis to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Equal ratios can be inequitable where need and cost differ. A small remote school may require a minimum complement even when its ratio is low; a school serving multiple languages or children requiring specialised support may require additional capability. The public-interest obligation is to apply explicit, relevant criteria and to make the resulting distribution visible.

conditions, service, identifies, symptom require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 31. Public-interest basis. Public-interest basis to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Public-interest basis to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. These matters are linked. Deployment cannot be sustained by transfer orders alone when housing, safety, professional support, family circumstances and career progression make a post materially more difficult to hold. A measurement system that reports the vacancy but not the repeated turnover or the conditions of service identifies only the final symptom.[REF-02]

controlled, register, preserves, identifiers require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 32. Person, post and assignment. Person, post and assignment to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Person, post and assignment to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The post is the appropriate unit for establishment authority and vacancy. The assignment is the appropriate unit for school, level, subject, grade and function. A controlled register preserves all three and links them with dated identifiers.

publication, concurrent, assignments, consolidated require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 32. Person, post and assignment. Person, post and assignment to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Person, post and assignment to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Counting persons without assignments can include teachers working in administrative offices, teacher-training institutions or non-school functions. Counting filled posts can double count an individual holding fractions of more than one post. The statistical publication is to state which unit is used and how concurrent assignments are consolidated.

reason, release, revision, retained require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 32. Person, post and assignment. Person, post and assignment to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Person, post and assignment to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. An annual snapshot without transaction dates cannot distinguish a genuine movement from late data entry. Retrospective corrections must remain auditable: the corrected value may replace an erroneous public series, but the reason, scale and release date of the revision are to be retained.

superior, answer, different, questions require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 33. Headcount and full-time equivalent. Headcount and full-time equivalent to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Headcount and full-time equivalent to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It is essential for recruitment, retirement, professional development and occupational conditions. Full-time equivalent measures purchased or assigned labour relative to the national full-time rule. It is more suitable for resource ratios where part-time employment is material. Neither is inherently superior; they answer different questions.

definitions, contact, contact, recorded require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 33. Headcount and full-time equivalent. Headcount and full-time equivalent to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Headcount and full-time equivalent to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. 9. If the hours include duties beyond teaching, this is not 1. 9 instructional full-time equivalents. A further conversion using scheduled contact time is required. Definitions of full-time work, contact time and paid non-contact duty must be recorded.

equivalent, students, teachers, distinguishes require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 33. Headcount and full-time equivalent. Headcount and full-time equivalent to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Headcount and full-time equivalent to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Some systems may classify a person by status; others may divide actual or contractual hours. A ratio calculated from full-time-equivalent pupils and teachers is not comparable with one using headcounts unless part-time participation is negligible or an adjustment is made. *Education at a Glance 2004* expressly bases the student–teacher ratio on full-time-equivalent students and teachers and distinguishes it from class size.[REF-08]

therefore, required, addition, occupational require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 34. Teaching and non-teaching functions. Teaching and non-teaching functions to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teaching and non-teaching functions to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Systems differ in whether school leaders retain teaching loads and whether specialist support staff are classified as teachers. The function performed in the reference period is therefore required in addition to occupational title.

remains, headcount, workforce, analysis require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 34. Teaching and non-teaching functions. Teaching and non-teaching functions to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teaching and non-teaching functions to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Personnel wholly assigned to administration or another level are not to be included merely because their payroll grade is “teacher”. Where a principal teaches part of the timetable, only the corresponding instructional workload enters an instructional-capacity measure, while the person remains in the headcount for workforce analysis.

automatic, transfer, classroom, teaching require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 34. Teaching and non-teaching functions. Teaching and non-teaching functions to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teaching and non-teaching functions to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The OECD evidence shows wide differences in the proportion and composition of non-teaching staff, reflecting organisation and management. Administrative and support functions can protect teachers' instructional time. The analytical requirement is accurate classification, not automatic transfer of every paid hour into classroom teaching.[REF-08]

different, rights, qualification, workloads require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 35. Employment status and contingent capacity. Employment status and contingent capacity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Employment status and contingent capacity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Employment status affects cost, security, turnover, eligibility for training and the reliability of future supply. The categories are to be reported separately where they carry materially different rights, qualification rules or workloads.

workload, conditions, observed, teaching require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 35. Employment status and contingent capacity. Employment status and contingent capacity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Employment status and contingent capacity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Volunteers may extend access in an emergency or remote setting, yet their service cannot be assumed to persist in a multi-year projection without an explicit retention and remuneration basis. Contract status is not a proxy for quality; the relevant evidence concerns preparation, selection, support, workload, conditions and observed teaching.

turnover, supervision, continuity, service require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 35. Employment status and contingent capacity. Employment status and contingent capacity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Employment status and contingent capacity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A planning model may test such arrangements but cannot treat lower salary as an efficiency gain without accounting for selection, training, turnover, supervision and the continuity of service.[REF-07]

internationally, uniform, preparation, threshold require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 36. Qualification and training status. Qualification and training status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Qualification and training status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. **Academic qualification** concerns general or subject education. **Professional qualification** concerns completion of the recognised preparation for teaching. **Trained status** in international reporting commonly means that the teacher has received the minimum organised teacher training required in the country. The third category is nationally defined and cannot establish an internationally uniform preparation threshold.[REF-04] [REF-05]

rather, forced, trained, untrained require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 36. Qualification and training status. Qualification and training status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Qualification and training status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A simple yes/no field discards information needed when rules change. Teachers in training, provisionally licensed or admitted through an alternative route are to have distinct statuses rather than being forced into “trained” or “untrained”.

result, establish, workforce, trained require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 36. Qualification and training status. Qualification and training status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Qualification and training status to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It must not be added to the trained numerator, nor automatically treated as untrained. A published proportion is to show the denominator and the share unknown. If trained status is 80 per cent among the 75 per cent of teachers with known records, the result does not establish that 80 per cent of the full workforce is trained.

person, remains, employed, ministry require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 37. The stock-and-flow identity. The stock-and-flow identity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The stock-and-flow identity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The identity is to be applied separately to headcount and full-time equivalents. It also requires a boundary: movement from primary to secondary teaching is an exit from the primary stock even if the person remains employed by the same ministry.

investigated, before, series, projection require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 37. The stock-and-flow identity. The stock-and-flow identity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The stock-and-flow identity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. If the recorded closing stock cannot be derived from opening stock and transactions, either events are missing, records are duplicated, or definitions changed. The difference is a reconciliation residual, not net recruitment. It is to be reported and investigated before the series is used for projection.

continuity, growth, figure, conceals require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 37. The stock-and-flow identity. The stock-and-flow identity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The stock-and-flow identity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A stock of 100,000 can remain constant after 10,000 entries and 10,000 exits, or after 1,000 entries and 1,000 exits. These systems have different training requirements, induction loads, experience profiles and continuity risks. A net-growth figure conceals them.

capacity, therefore, employable, supply require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 38. Entry pathway. Entry pathway to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Entry pathway to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Attrition occurs at every transition. Training capacity is therefore not the same as employable supply.

teachers, willing, isolated, communities require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 38. Entry pathway. Entry pathway to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Entry pathway to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Field of study, language, level and intended location matter. A surplus of general primary candidates does not resolve a shortage of mathematics teachers, bilingual teachers or staff willing and able to serve isolated communities.

practicum, placements, induction, support require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 38. Entry pathway. Entry pathway to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Entry pathway to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Expansion planned for the following school year cannot be met through a preparation programme lasting several years unless candidates are already in the pathway or a lawful interim route exists. A projection is to show the earliest date at which additional prepared entrants can reach schools and the capacity required in training institutions, practicum placements and induction support.

occupations, depend, defined, boundary require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 39. Exit, attrition and mobility. Exit, attrition and mobility to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Exit, attrition and mobility to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The denominator is ordinarily the relevant workforce at the beginning of the period, but average-stock denominators may be used if stated. Retirement, death, resignation, dismissal and expiry without renewal are different causes. Transfers between schools are turnover for the school but not attrition from the national workforce. Transfers between levels or occupations depend on the defined boundary.

planning, rather, single, attrition require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 39. Exit, attrition and mobility. Exit, attrition and mobility to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Exit, attrition and mobility to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Retirement projections require age and, where relevant, service eligibility. Mortality and long illness may be material in countries affected by HIV/AIDS; the 2003 costing study treated teacher sickness, absence, death, replacement and additional training as connected planning costs rather than as a single attrition rate.[REF-07]

represent, leaving, difficult, conditions require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 39. Exit, attrition and mobility. Exit, attrition and mobility to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Exit, attrition and mobility to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. “Resignation” may conceal non-renewal, migration to another education employer or movement to a central post. “Unknown” must remain visible. Exit interviews can add explanation but are subject to non-response and may not represent those leaving under the most difficult conditions.

requirement, workforce, ageing, attrition require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 40. Replacement demand and growth demand. Replacement demand and growth demand to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Replacement demand and growth demand to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Replacement demand is the recruitment required to offset exits and reductions in workload. Gross recruitment need is their sum, adjusted for expected re-entry and transfers in. A system with stable enrolment may still face a large requirement where the workforce is ageing or attrition is high.

whether, institutional, demand, included require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 40. Replacement demand and growth demand. Replacement demand and growth demand to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Replacement demand and growth demand to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. New entrants themselves can leave before the horizon; recruitment in one year changes the age and experience distribution in later years. Training institutions also require teachers and may draw from the same qualified population. The model must state whether this institutional demand is included.

experience, tenure, present, school require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 41. Age and experience structure. Age and experience structure to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Age and experience structure to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Experience distribution provides information about induction and career structure but must distinguish total teaching experience from tenure in the present school.

therefore, depends, distribution, average require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 41. Age and experience structure. Age and experience structure to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Age and experience structure to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A very young workforce may indicate successful expansion and a heavy requirement for induction, mentoring and leadership development. The planning interpretation therefore depends on the shape of the distribution, not an average age alone.

investigated, through, personnel, controls require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 41. Age and experience structure. Age and experience structure to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Age and experience structure to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Public tables use grouped ages and suppress small cells where identification is possible. Missing dates of birth are not to be assigned to the modal age; they are reported as unknown and investigated through personnel controls.

plausible, variants, account, assumptions require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 42. Scenario uncertainty. Scenario uncertainty to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Scenario uncertainty to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Enrolment, repetition, progression, retirement, attrition, training yield, workload and salary assumptions all affect the result. The reportable output is not only a central estimate but a range under plausible variants and an account of which assumptions drive the range.

curtailed, curriculum, favourable, outcome require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 42. Scenario uncertainty. Scenario uncertainty to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Scenario uncertainty to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A lower case may reflect slower demographic growth, improved deployment and reduced repetition. These are not optimistic and pessimistic labels unless the educational consequences are established. A lower teacher count produced by exclusion or curtailed curriculum is not a favourable outcome.

migration, settlement, school, choice require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 43. Pupil projections are the starting point, not the staffing result. Pupil projections are the starting point, not the staffing result to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Pupil projections are the starting point, not the staffing result to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Each component carries uncertainty. A national-age population does not reveal where pupils will attend; district and school demand also depends on migration, settlement and school choice.

staffing, requirement, pupils, school require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 43. Pupil projections are the starting point, not the staffing result. Pupil projections are the starting point, not the staffing result to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Pupil projections are the starting point, not the staffing result to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Collapsing all primary enrolment into one total assumes that teachers and classroom places are perfectly divisible and transferable. A school with 83 pupils across six grades does not create the same staffing requirement as 83 pupils in one grade at a large urban school.

straight, insufficient, underlying, change require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 43. Pupil projections are the starting point, not the staffing result. Pupil projections are the starting point, not the staffing result to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Pupil projections are the starting point, not the staffing result to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The model must permit policy shocks and show their implementation date. A straight-line trend is insufficient where the underlying rules change.

teachers, applying, national, indivisibility require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 44. Class formation. Class formation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Class formation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Rounding matters: 41 pupils under a planning maximum of 40 require two classes, not 1. 025 teachers. Applying a ratio at national level loses this indivisibility.

understate, professional, instructional, requirement require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 44. Class formation. Class formation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Class formation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Its staffing requirement depends on the grades combined, curriculum design, teacher preparation, materials and timetable. A model that assumes one teacher per grade can overstate demand in sparse areas; a model that assumes unrestricted combination can understate the professional and instructional requirement.

therefore, explicit, school, records require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 44. Class formation. Class formation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Class formation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. If teachers work both shifts, workload and contact-time rules govern feasibility and cost. If separate teachers are employed, classroom capacity and teacher demand move differently. Shift status must therefore be explicit in school records.

cannot, pooled, across, distance require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 45. Curriculum periods and subject specialisation. Curriculum periods and subject specialisation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Curriculum periods and subject specialisation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The aggregate number of periods can balance while individual schools have fractional shortages that cannot be pooled across distance.

effective, recruitment, retraining, deployment require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 45. Curriculum periods and subject specialisation. Curriculum periods and subject specialisation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Curriculum periods and subject specialisation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Additional science, language, arts or vocational periods may require staff with different preparation. The implementation plan must therefore connect curriculum effective dates to recruitment, retraining and deployment lead times.

family, without, stated, equivalence require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 45. Curriculum periods and subject specialisation. Curriculum periods and subject specialisation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Curriculum periods and subject specialisation to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. “Science” may denote integrated science at one level and separate disciplines at another. A teacher academically prepared in one field cannot be counted as fully deployable to every subject in a broad family without a stated equivalence rule.

depends, materially, contact, obligations require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 46. Teacher contact time. Teacher contact time to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher contact time to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Net teaching or contact time is the scheduled time of direct instruction. The number of teachers required for a given curriculum depends materially on contact-time obligations.

ratios, without, timetable, context require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 46. Teacher contact time. Teacher contact time to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher contact time to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. These differences help explain why similar enrolment and class size can require different numbers of teachers. They also limit direct comparison of student–teacher ratios without the timetable context.[REF-08]

educationally, credible, allocation, working require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 46. Teacher contact time. Teacher contact time to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teacher contact time to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. School closure, absence, examinations, training and timetable interruption can reduce actual time. Nor is maximising contact hours necessarily sound: preparation, assessment and professional collaboration are part of teaching quality. Planning requires a lawful and educationally credible allocation of total working time.

ratios, automatically, labelled, inefficient require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 47. Minimum viable staffing. Minimum viable staffing to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Minimum viable staffing to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A minimum complement may be required for leadership, safeguarding, subject coverage or continuity during absence. The requirement is context-specific and may create low pupil–teacher ratios in small schools. Such ratios must not be automatically labelled inefficient.

remedy, transport, reliability, calculation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 47. Minimum viable staffing. Minimum viable staffing to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Minimum viable staffing to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Transport time and reliability enter the calculation where staff serve more than one site.

requires, geographic, community, evidence require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 47. Minimum viable staffing. Minimum viable staffing to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Minimum viable staffing to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It is to be distinguished from avoidable fragmentation caused by poorly located schools or uncoordinated provision. The distinction requires geographic and community evidence, not the ratio alone.

transparent, school, district, entitlement require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 48. National balance is not local sufficiency. National balance is not local sufficiency to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. National balance is not local sufficiency to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The arithmetic balance is therefore a necessary reconciliation result, not a finding of equitable supply. Deployment measures compare actual assignment with a transparent school or district entitlement.

allocation, actual, circumstances, published require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 48. National balance is not local sufficiency. National balance is not local sufficiency to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. National balance is not local sufficiency to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A rule based only on pupils may fail small schools or subject-specialist programmes. A historical post schedule may preserve allocations after enrolment shifts. The measure is strongest when both the allocation rule and actual circumstances are published.

percentiles, dispersion, useful, labelled require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 49. Distributional statistics. Distributional statistics to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Distributional statistics to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The unweighted mean of school ratios answers a different question and can give small schools disproportionate influence. The median school ratio describes the middle school, while percentiles show dispersion. All may be useful if labelled.

quality, standards, publication, explain require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 49. Distributional statistics. Distributional statistics to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Distributional statistics to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Interquartile ranges, tenth and ninetieth percentiles, and shares of pupils in schools beyond defined planning bands provide a more informative distribution. Planning bands are administrative thresholds, not universal quality standards, and the publication is to explain their basis.

duration, remains, vacant, repeatedly require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 50. Rural and remote deployment. Rural and remote deployment to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Rural and remote deployment to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A single hardship label is too coarse. The register is to identify the actual characteristics of the post and the duration for which it remains vacant or repeatedly turns over.

classified, implemented, deployment, measure require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 50. Rural and remote deployment. Rural and remote deployment to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Rural and remote deployment to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Measurement of incentives therefore includes eligibility, receipt, timeliness and retention after receipt. An allowance announced but not paid cannot be classified as an implemented deployment measure.[REF-02]

service, establish, change, school require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 50. Rural and remote deployment. Rural and remote deployment to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Rural and remote deployment to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The evidence is to distinguish admission, completion, appointment and sustained service. A quota at the first stage does not establish a change at the school.

subject, assignment, employment, status require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 51. Gender and workforce distribution. Gender and workforce distribution to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Gender and workforce distribution to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It is not a universal measure of quality. Interpretation requires level, location, leadership distribution, subject assignment and employment status.

discriminatory, practice, rather, aggregate require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 51. Gender and workforce distribution. Gender and workforce distribution to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Gender and workforce distribution to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Publication therefore needs cross-tabulation by location and level, subject to confidentiality. Policy responses are to address the documented constraint—such as housing, safety, recruitment opportunity or discriminatory practice—rather than infer one from the aggregate.

divide, matched, unmatched, subjects require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 52. Subject, language and grade mismatch. Subject, language and grade mismatch to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Subject, language and grade mismatch to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The mismatch rate counts assigned instructional workload outside a defined acceptable field. A person-based rate is less precise when teachers divide time among matched and unmatched subjects.

voluntary, appropriate, collection, relevant require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 52. Subject, language and grade mismatch. Subject, language and grade mismatch to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Subject, language and grade mismatch to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The data system is to record demonstrable language capacity using a lawful and relevant classification. Ethnicity must not be used as a proxy for language competence. Personal data require protection and voluntary, appropriate collection where relevant.

concerns, preparation, support, assignment require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 52. Subject, language and grade mismatch. Subject, language and grade mismatch to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Subject, language and grade mismatch to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A system may place less experienced or less prepared teachers in the earliest grades although foundational instruction carries distinct demands. Experience alone does not determine fitness; the required evidence concerns preparation, support and assignment.

coexist, vacancy, repeatedly, refilled require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 53. Turnover and continuity. Turnover and continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Turnover and continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Turnover reveals repeated disruption. School-level turnover is the number of arrivals and departures during a period relative to the average workforce, with expansion appointments identified separately. High turnover can coexist with a low vacancy rate if posts are repeatedly refilled.

arrive, before, service, interrupted require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 53. Turnover and continuity. Turnover and continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Turnover and continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It does not justify preventing lawful mobility or preserving unsuitable assignments. The policy question is whether avoidable conditions cause disproportionate instability and whether replacements arrive before service is interrupted.

evidence, available, durable, assignment require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 54. Deployment decision rules. Deployment decision rules to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Deployment decision rules to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A rule based on seniority alone may not resolve subject gaps; a discretionary rule without reasons creates risk of unequal treatment. Teacher participation and appeal mechanisms are consistent with professional status and can improve the evidence available for durable assignment.[REF-02]

movement, teacher, retained, locations require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 54. Deployment decision rules. Deployment decision rules to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Deployment decision rules to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. An order is not a completed transfer. The personnel register, payroll cost centre and school record are to be reconciled after movement so that the same teacher is not retained in two locations.

statistics, official, national, responses require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 55. What the international table can and cannot show. What the international table can and cannot show to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. What the international table can and cannot show to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The table generally refers to the 2001/02 school year and identifies values as preliminary. It draws on data compiled by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics from official national responses.[REF-05]

comparability, qualifications, result, peripheral require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 55. What the international table can and cannot show. What the international table can and cannot show to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. What the international table can and cannot show to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It defines trained teachers by national minimum requirements and cautions that preparation varies greatly. It defines the primary pupil–teacher ratio as enrolled primary pupils divided by primary teachers, regardless of teaching assignment. It also notes that definitions, grade-specific class size and hours taught affect comparability. Those qualifications are part of the result, not peripheral notes.

pupils, amount, contact, receives require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 56. Reading the regional pattern. Reading the regional pattern to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Reading the regional pattern to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The reported ratio is 40 pupils per teacher for low-income economies and 22 for middle-income economies; regional values are 45 in sub-Saharan Africa and 42 in South Asia, compared with 17 in Europe and Central Asia and in high-income economies. These figures signal materially different aggregate staffing conditions. They do not indicate the number of pupils in a class or the amount of contact time each receives.

preparation, within, reporting, boundary require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 56. Reading the regional pattern. Reading the regional pattern to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Reading the regional pattern to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Sub-Saharan Africa is reported at 80. 4 per cent trained and 45 pupils per teacher, South Asia at 66. 9 per cent and 42, and Latin America and the Caribbean at 76. 7 per cent and 26. Because trained status follows national requirements, the percentage cannot be read as a common proficiency scale. It nevertheless reveals the scale of the nationally recognised preparation gap within each reporting boundary.

different, conditions, different, interventions require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 56. Reading the regional pattern. Reading the regional pattern to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Reading the regional pattern to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Combining a trained share and a ratio would require assumptions about equivalence, substitution and weighting. Ten additional pupils per teacher cannot be offset arithmetically by a specified number of percentage points in trained status. They describe different conditions and may call for different interventions.

average, occupy, contextual, diagnosis require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 57. Country variation and data completeness. Country variation and data completeness to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Country variation and data completeness to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Examples reported for 2001/02 include primary pupil–teacher ratios of 10 in Denmark and the Netherlands, 14 in Cuba and Estonia, 20 in China and Malaysia, 40 in India and Nepal, 56 in Cambodia, Mali and the Republic of Congo, 61 in Cameroon, 66 in Mozambique and 71 in Chad. These selected values are not a ranking; they demonstrate the range that a national average can occupy and the need for contextual diagnosis.[REF-05]

available, interpret, absent, compliance require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 57. Country variation and data completeness. Country variation and data completeness to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Country variation and data completeness to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Missingness limits any analysis restricted to complete pairs and may produce a non-representative sample. The proper publication reports the number of countries and population coverage contributing to an aggregate when the source makes that information available; it does not interpret an absent value as zero or full compliance.

convenience, single, remove, obligation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 57. Country variation and data completeness. Country variation and data completeness to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Country variation and data completeness to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A comparative extract is therefore to carry the country-specific note. The convenience of a single table does not remove this obligation.

instruction, organisation, groups, differ require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 58. Resource ratio versus class size. Resource ratio versus class size to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Resource ratio versus class size to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It defines class size through the number of students in a class or teaching group. The report demonstrates that two countries can have similar student–teacher ratios and different class sizes because teacher working time, pupil instruction time and the organisation of groups differ.[REF-08]

instruction, teacher, organisation, differs require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 58. Resource ratio versus class size. Resource ratio versus class size to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Resource ratio versus class size to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Average class size rises with the number of pupils and pupil instructional periods and falls with the number of teachers and teacher contact periods, subject to scheduling and school constraints. Consequently, a system can reduce a resource ratio by employing more teachers without reducing class size if those teachers have lower contact loads or undertake other functions. It can operate relatively small classes with a less favourable ratio if pupil instruction time or teacher organisation differs.

labour, resources, interact, instrument require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 58. Resource ratio versus class size. Resource ratio versus class size to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Resource ratio versus class size to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A class-size policy affects rooms, class formation and timetables; a staffing-ratio policy affects aggregate labour resources. They interact but are not the same instrument.

scheduled, instruction, different, contact require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 59. Comparative teaching time. Comparative teaching time to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Comparative teaching time to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Preparation, assessment, professional activity and administration may be regulated differently. The comparison is useful because the same teacher FTE can support different quantities of scheduled instruction under different contact-time rules.[REF-08]

whether, required, scheduled, delivered require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 59. Comparative teaching time. Comparative teaching time to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Comparative teaching time to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Weekly loads cannot be compared without the number of teaching weeks. Statutory time is not observed time. A complete comparative account identifies whether a value is required, scheduled or delivered.

ranged, gujarat, listed, states require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 60. Evidence on presence. Evidence on presence to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Evidence on presence to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. For the primary-school observations reproduced in its table 1. 2, the reported rates were 16 per cent in Ecuador, 25 per cent for an average of 14 Indian states, 18 per cent in Indonesia, 15 per cent in Papua New Guinea, 13 per cent in Peru, 17 per cent in Zambia and 26 per cent in Uganda. The related state table for India ranged from 15 per cent in Gujarat to 39 per cent in Bihar among the listed states.[REF-06]

public, finance, private, enrolment require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 61. Costing evidence and the status of 40:1. Costing evidence and the status of 40:1 to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Costing evidence and the status of 40:1 to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. In its adjusted sample, primary pupil–teacher ratios ranged from 13:1 to 79:1. The group characterised by relatively higher primary completion had an average ratio of 39:1; the full sample average was 44:1. The study used 40:1 as a 2015 parameter in simulations that also adjusted salary, repetition, non-teacher inputs, public finance and private enrolment.[REF-07]

benchmark, isolated, causal, threshold require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 61. Costing evidence and the status of 40:1. Costing evidence and the status of 40:1 to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Costing evidence and the status of 40:1 to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It acknowledges that pupil–teacher ratio is not perfectly correlated with class size, that country geography can constrain deployment, and that the parameter forms one part of a balanced package. Its regression table reported essentially no independent association for the ratio within the specified model after other variables were included, while repetition and spending variables carried different relationships. That result does not prove ratio is irrelevant; it warns against presenting the benchmark as an isolated causal threshold.

numbers, material, constraint, unresolved require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 61. Costing evidence and the status of 40:1. Costing evidence and the status of 40:1 to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Costing evidence and the status of 40:1 to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. One group combined high enrolment with low completion and very high repetition. Another combined low coverage, high teacher salaries relative to national income and high ratios. In each case, changing teacher numbers alone would leave a material constraint unresolved.[REF-07]

global, estimate, delivered, instructional require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 62. A bounded comparative conclusion. A bounded comparative conclusion to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A bounded comparative conclusion to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Large differences in aggregate teacher resources exist; nationally recognised preparation remains incomplete in many reporting systems; teaching-time organisation affects the meaning of resource ratios; and presence losses can materially reduce service. The evidence does not support a universal staffing number, a common training-quality scale or a global estimate of delivered instructional FTE.

conduct, direct, evidence, required require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 62. A bounded comparative conclusion. A bounded comparative conclusion to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A bounded comparative conclusion to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It may identify systems or regions for further investigation, but policy selection follows national and subnational diagnosis. The stronger the claim—especially a claim about quality, causation or individual conduct—the more direct the evidence required.

status, separately, initial, observation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 63. Presence as a service-delivery measure. Presence as a service-delivery measure to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Presence as a service-delivery measure to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It is narrower than attendance over a term and broader than unauthorised absence. A valid presence measure begins with a roster of persons expected, excludes those not scheduled, and records the reason and authorisation status separately from the initial observation.

school, applicable, across, countries require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 63. Presence as a service-delivery measure. Presence as a service-delivery measure to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Presence as a service-delivery measure to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Repeated visits across days and seasons are required for system estimates. The 2004 *World Development Report* tables define absence as a person supposed to be present but not present during an unannounced visit, including authorised and unauthorised reasons. The preliminary country estimates ranged from 13 to 26 per cent for the primary-school observations shown, while the reported state values within India ranged more widely. These figures demonstrate measurement relevance; they do not establish a current rate for every school or a cause applicable across countries.[REF-06]

processing, sanctions, follow, different require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 63. Presence as a service-delivery measure. Presence as a service-delivery measure to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Presence as a service-delivery measure to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Observation and administrative data therefore provide complementary checks. Payroll deductions are not a presence measure, since authorised leave, delayed processing and sanctions follow different rules.

different, replacement, continuity, effects require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 64. Reasons, duration and replacement. Reasons, duration and replacement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Reasons, duration and replacement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The classification is completed after verification, not inferred by an observer. Duration matters because one extended absence and repeated single-day absence have different replacement and continuity effects.

conditions, reported, distinct, arrangement require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 64. Reasons, duration and replacement. Reasons, duration and replacement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Reasons, duration and replacement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The educational loss is scheduled periods not delivered or materially curtailed, not the number of absent persons alone. Replacement by combining classes may preserve supervision while reducing instructional conditions; it is reported as a distinct arrangement.

closed, closure, measured, separately require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 65. Calendar, closure and timetable loss. Calendar, closure and timetable loss to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Calendar, closure and timetable loss to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. School-level closure can result from weather, insecurity, elections, examinations, public-health events, building failure or local administrative decisions. Teacher presence cannot restore time when the school is closed, so closure is measured separately.

continuous, surveillance, professional, action require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 65. Calendar, closure and timetable loss. Calendar, closure and timetable loss to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Calendar, closure and timetable loss to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Reliable measurement may use sampled observation, timetable records and school logs. The burden is to be proportionate: the objective is a defensible system estimate and timely local response, not continuous surveillance of every professional action.

included, delivered, period, applied require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 66. From employed FTE to instructional FTE. From employed FTE to instructional FTE to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. From employed FTE to instructional FTE to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The example is not a performance target. It shows why a payroll stock can overstate delivered capacity and why double-counting losses must be avoided. If absence is already included in delivered-period data, it is not applied again.

workforce, account, occupies, structure require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 67. Capacity is not quality. Capacity is not quality to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Capacity is not quality to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It cannot establish clarity of explanation, appropriateness of pedagogy, classroom climate, formative assessment or learning. The quality framework in the 2005 EFA Global Monitoring Report connects learner characteristics, context, enabling inputs, teaching and learning activities, and outcomes; the workforce account occupies only part of this wider structure.[REF-03]

specific, decision, retains, limitation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 67. Capacity is not quality. Capacity is not quality to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Capacity is not quality to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Credentials, experience, presence and contact time are not interchangeable and cannot be added without arbitrary weights. Each measure supports a specific decision and retains its limitation.

protected, public, outputs, aggregated require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 68. Personnel register. Personnel register to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Personnel register to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Its minimum fields include identifier, employment status, workload, preparation, subject or grade field, employing authority, assignment, start and end dates, leave status and source of verification. Sensitive information is protected and public outputs are aggregated.

salary, details, individual, attendance require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 68. Personnel register. Personnel register to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Personnel register to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A correction procedure is required for errors, and access to personal records is logged. The statistical function does not require publication of names, salary details or individual attendance.

duplicated, payments, delayed, removal require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 69. Establishment and payroll. Establishment and payroll to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Establishment and payroll to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. They are related but neither proves school service. Reconciliation identifies active payments without a current personnel record, filled posts without payment, persons charged to the wrong location, duplicated payments and delayed removal after exit.

entering, published, teacher, totals require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 69. Establishment and payroll. Establishment and payroll to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Establishment and payroll to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Timing differences, lawful arrears and approved secondment can explain a mismatch. The control result records resolution and prevents unresolved exceptions from silently entering published teacher totals.

person, identifiers, permit, reconciliation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 70. School census and timetable records. School census and timetable records to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. School census and timetable records to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It is indispensable for deployment ratios. It may nevertheless count staff reported by the head teacher rather than verified persons, omit teachers temporarily away or include visitors. Stable school and person identifiers permit reconciliation.

administrative, supported, school, record require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 70. School census and timetable records. School census and timetable records to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. School census and timetable records to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. They require period length, subject, grade or class, teacher and day. A timetable that assigns one person simultaneously to different classes is internally invalid. Rule-based validation may identify the conflict, but its correction remains an administrative task supported by the school record.

recognition, status, programme, changes require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 71. Training-provider pathway. Training-provider pathway to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Training-provider pathway to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. These data require cohort identifiers so that completion yield is not calculated from unrelated annual totals. Recognition status and programme changes are dated.

stated, rather, filled, assumption require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 71. Training-provider pathway. Training-provider pathway to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Training-provider pathway to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Public analysis reports aggregate transitions and does not expose applicant-level results. Where linkage is unavailable, the uncertainty between completions and appointments is stated rather than filled by assumption.

national, detail, preserved, beneath require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 72. Master classifications. Master classifications to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Master classifications to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. ISCED 1997 supports international level mapping, while national detail is preserved beneath that map.[REF-10]

preparation, unless, historical, recoded require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 72. Master classifications. Master classifications to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Master classifications to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Version numbers and effective dates are therefore part of the statistical record. A new definition of “trained” is not to be presented as a change in teacher preparation unless historical data have been recoded on the same basis.

transparency, confidential, treatment, individual require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 73. Revision and statistical independence. Revision and statistical independence to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Revision and statistical independence to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Political or administrative preference cannot determine whether an unfavourable result is published. The Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics provide the relevant basis for professional methods, transparency and confidential treatment of individual data.[REF-11]

explanation, necessary, public, interpretation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 73. Revision and statistical independence. Revision and statistical independence to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Revision and statistical independence to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A census update, payroll cleaning exercise or reclassification may alter prior years without indicating an actual workforce change. Both the revised series and the break explanation are necessary for public interpretation.

choices, teacher, requirement, calculated require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 74. Scenario construction. Scenario construction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Scenario construction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It then states class formation or subject-period demand, teacher workload, minimum school staffing, expected availability and replacement assumptions. Only after those choices is the teacher requirement calculated.

leaving, vacancies, internally, inconsistent require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 74. Scenario construction. Scenario construction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Scenario construction to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Each case uses coherent assumptions. Combining high enrolment with low training capacity but leaving vacancies at zero is internally inconsistent.

repetition, salary, inputs, finance require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 75. The place of ratio benchmarks. The place of ratio benchmarks to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The place of ratio benchmarks to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The 2003 study of universal primary completion observed an average pupil–teacher ratio of 39:1 among a group of higher-completion low-income countries and used 40:1 in its 2015 costing scenarios. The authors also documented substantial country variation and placed the ratio alongside salaries, repetition, non-salary inputs and finance.[REF-07]

preparation, fiscal, capacity, feasibility require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 75. The place of ratio benchmarks. The place of ratio benchmarks to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The place of ratio benchmarks to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Extremely high or low ratios warrant diagnosis, and balanced resource parameters matter. It does not establish a universal optimum. Country geography, school size, curriculum, contact time, teacher preparation and fiscal capacity alter both cost and feasibility.

arrears, recruited, cadres, separately require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 76. Salary bill and complementary inputs. Salary bill and complementary inputs to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Salary bill and complementary inputs to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Average salary multiplied by teacher count is insufficient where the grade distribution or hardship payments change. Vacancies, arrears and newly recruited cadres are separately shown.

conditions, required, effective, teaching require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 76. Salary bill and complementary inputs. Salary bill and complementary inputs to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Salary bill and complementary inputs to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The 2003 costing study explicitly protected non-teacher inputs, including materials, development, supervision, assessment and management, because unchecked salary pressure can displace conditions required for effective teaching.[REF-07]

salaries, appear, implementation, schedule require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 77. Training and transition costs. Training and transition costs to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Training and transition costs to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Rapid change can also require temporary classrooms, teacher housing, transport or additional supervision. These costs have different timing from salaries and must appear in the implementation schedule.

preparation, period, overstates, capacity require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 77. Training and transition costs. Training and transition costs to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Training and transition costs to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Counting the same teacher as fully available for instruction and full-time preparation over the same period overstates capacity.

unfunded, future, sustainable, staffing require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 78. Fiscal sustainability. Fiscal sustainability to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Fiscal sustainability to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A scenario therefore reports recurrent cost at the horizon, its share of the relevant public resource envelope and the sensitivity to salary and attrition. External finance may support transition, but an unfunded future wage bill is not a sustainable staffing plan.

sequencing, domestic, responsibilities, explicit require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 78. Fiscal sustainability. Fiscal sustainability to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Fiscal sustainability to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Workforce projections serve that procedure when assumptions, sequencing and domestic responsibilities are explicit.[REF-09]

provision, temporary, missing, records require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 79. National profile. National profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. National profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It states coverage of non-government provision, temporary staff and missing records.

districts, subjects, retained, shortages require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 79. National profile. National profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. National profile to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A defensible statement identifies the scope: for example, aggregate filled FTE equalled modelled national demand under stated assumptions, while specified districts and subjects retained shortages.

personal, characteristics, suppressed, combined require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 80. Subnational and school-level use. Subnational and school-level use to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Subnational and school-level use to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. School-level data are used administratively but public release is governed by privacy, data quality and risk of misinterpretation. Small cells concerning qualification, absence or personal characteristics are suppressed or combined.

correction, accompany, material, deficiencies require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 80. Subnational and school-level use. Subnational and school-level use to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Subnational and school-level use to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The responsible authority and correction route accompany material deficiencies.

ranking, withheld, clearly, qualified require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 81. Comparability statement. Comparability statement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Comparability statement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. If one country reports headcount and another FTE, direct ranking is withheld or clearly qualified.

service, reconstruct, statistical, boundary require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 81. Comparability statement. Comparability statement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Comparability statement to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A wider coverage can raise or lower a ratio without a change in service. The user is to be able to reconstruct the statistical boundary from the note.

supports, questions, automatic, sanctions require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 82. Appropriate and inappropriate uses. Appropriate and inappropriate uses to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Appropriate and inappropriate uses to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It supports questions, not automatic sanctions.

salary, without, workload, context require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 82. Appropriate and inappropriate uses. Appropriate and inappropriate uses to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Appropriate and inappropriate uses to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It is also inappropriate to compare salary cost without workload and price context.

counts, especially, sensitive, classification require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 83. Pre-primary provision. Pre-primary provision to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Pre-primary provision to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The age of children, duration of sessions, group organisation, care and protection responsibilities, adult support and the boundary between education and other early-childhood services affect the required workforce. Titles and preparation routes also vary, making international teacher counts especially sensitive to classification.

equivalents, require, stated, conversion require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 83. Pre-primary provision. Pre-primary provision to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Pre-primary provision to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Their contributions are complementary, but merging them into a single denominator obscures both cost and professional preparation. Where sessions are part day, child and staff full-time equivalents require a stated conversion.

status, continuity, addition, persons require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 83. Pre-primary provision. Pre-primary provision to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Pre-primary provision to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Headcount can substantially exceed FTE, and annual turnover may be masked by short contracts. A pre-primary profile therefore reports hours, setting type, preparation status and continuity in addition to persons.

location, timing, cohort, retained require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 84. Primary class-teacher systems. Primary class-teacher systems to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Primary class-teacher systems to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. National enrolment divided by a ratio is insufficient because every school has grade-specific, integer requirements. Entry expansion first raises demand in early grades and then moves through the cycle; the location and timing of the cohort must be retained.

represented, trained, teacher, percentage require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 84. Primary class-teacher systems. Primary class-teacher systems to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Primary class-teacher systems to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A teacher qualified for primary education under the national rule may still require specific support for an unfamiliar language or combined-grade assignment. Such support is not represented by the trained-teacher percentage.

account, annual, vacancy, snapshot require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 84. Primary class-teacher systems. Primary class-teacher systems to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Primary class-teacher systems to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Repeated movement of class teachers can disrupt progression even if each vacancy is filled quickly. The school turnover rate, days without a regular teacher and replacement arrangement provide a stronger account than an annual vacancy snapshot.

subject, offset, shortage, another require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 85. Lower-secondary subject transition. Lower-secondary subject transition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Lower-secondary subject transition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The same pupils generate several subject-period requirements, and teachers' timetables contain non-contact preparation and assessment time. A national surplus in one subject does not offset a shortage in another.

calculated, balance, timetable, operate require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 85. Lower-secondary subject transition. Lower-secondary subject transition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Lower-secondary subject transition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Permissible solutions include teachers prepared across related fields, coordinated timetables across nearby schools and carefully scheduled itinerant provision. Every solution requires a valid subject-match rule and travel or coordination time. Treating fractional needs as nationally poolable can produce a calculated balance that no timetable can operate.

salary, planning, remain, connected require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 85. Lower-secondary subject transition. Lower-secondary subject transition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Lower-secondary subject transition to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Hiring subject teachers without the enabling conditions may increase payroll but not the intended curriculum. Workforce and non-salary planning remain connected.

specialists, trained, untrained, through require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 86. Upper-secondary and vocational programmes. Upper-secondary and vocational programmes to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Upper-secondary and vocational programmes to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Occupational expertise may be acquired outside the teacher-training route, while pedagogical preparation remains relevant. The register is to preserve both dimensions instead of classifying all specialists as trained or untrained through one field.

minimum, staffing, independent, enrolment require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 86. Upper-secondary and vocational programmes. Upper-secondary and vocational programmes to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Upper-secondary and vocational programmes to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Their headcount is a poor measure of capacity if each contributes few periods. FTE, timetable availability and continuity across the programme are necessary. Equipment safety and supervision can also set minimum staffing independent of enrolment.

because, employment, remains, funded require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 86. Upper-secondary and vocational programmes. Upper-secondary and vocational programmes to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Upper-secondary and vocational programmes to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Redeployment scenarios state the additional preparation required and do not count a person as immediately deployable merely because an employment post remains funded.

separately, because, sustainability, differ require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 87. Rapid expansion after policy change. Rapid expansion after policy change to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Rapid expansion after policy change to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The first-year plan identifies teachers already qualified but not employed, possible re-entrants, lawful temporary routes, deployable staff and the training capacity required for later years. Each source is reported separately because its cost and sustainability differ.

appointment, arrival, district, school require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 87. Rapid expansion after policy change. Rapid expansion after policy change to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Rapid expansion after policy change to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. New posts may be filled first in accessible areas, leaving the intended beneficiaries with larger classes or less-prepared staff. Monitoring therefore compares the pace of enrolment growth, post creation, appointment and arrival by district and school.

condition, duration, corrective, explicit require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 87. Rapid expansion after policy change. Rapid expansion after policy change to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Rapid expansion after policy change to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The planning implication is not to delay access until every input is ideal; it is to make the transition condition, duration and corrective path explicit.[REF-07]

become, unexamined, permanent, payroll require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 88. Conflict, displacement and institutional interruption. Conflict, displacement and institutional interruption to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Conflict, displacement and institutional interruption to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Historic establishment figures rapidly lose relevance. A temporary register may be necessary, but it records the source and verification status of each entry so that emergency data do not become an unexamined permanent payroll.

service, credentials, records, verified require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 88. Conflict, displacement and institutional interruption. Conflict, displacement and institutional interruption to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Conflict, displacement and institutional interruption to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Minimum service, safe access, language and psychosocial conditions may require staffing arrangements not captured by ordinary ratios. Teachers themselves may be displaced and require recognition of prior service or credentials where records can be verified.

operational, details, endanger, pupils require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 88. Conflict, displacement and institutional interruption. Conflict, displacement and institutional interruption to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Conflict, displacement and institutional interruption to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Publishing exact teacher or school locations can create risk. Public accountability can report aggregate coverage and service gaps without releasing operational details that endanger staff or pupils.

treating, epidemic, general, narrative require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 89. HIV/AIDS and workforce continuity. HIV/AIDS and workforce continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. HIV/AIDS and workforce continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The 2003 costing study identifies sickness-related absence, teacher mortality, replacement recruitment, training demand and increased numbers of orphans requiring support as connected consequences. It estimates costs through explicit epidemiological and demographic assumptions rather than treating the epidemic as a general narrative risk.[REF-07]

applicable, employment, health, arrangements require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 89. HIV/AIDS and workforce continuity. HIV/AIDS and workforce continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. HIV/AIDS and workforce continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Individual health status is not needed for routine teacher statistics and must not be inferred. Mortality and long-term absence data may inform projections when collected lawfully; workplace support, leave and replacement are handled through applicable employment and health arrangements.

standards, stripping, experienced, training require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 89. HIV/AIDS and workforce continuity. HIV/AIDS and workforce continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. HIV/AIDS and workforce continuity to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The projection states mortality, long-absence and replacement assumptions and varies them within evidence-based ranges. It also tests the training system's ability to replace losses without lowering preparation standards or stripping experienced staff from training roles.

vulnerability, limited, curriculum, breadth require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 90. Remote, island and sparsely populated systems. Remote, island and sparsely populated systems to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Remote, island and sparsely populated systems to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A school or island may require at least one teacher even when enrolment is very low. National ratios can then appear favourable while the system faces high unit costs, single-teacher vulnerability and limited curriculum breadth.

legitimate, access, apparent, inefficiency require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 90. Remote, island and sparsely populated systems. Remote, island and sparsely populated systems to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Remote, island and sparsely populated systems to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The 2003 costing study expressly notes that low population density and geography can make movement towards a common ratio difficult. A model that ignores this constraint turns legitimate access cost into apparent inefficiency.[REF-07]

service, reducing, nominal, elsewhere require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 90. Remote, island and sparsely populated systems. Remote, island and sparsely populated systems to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Remote, island and sparsely populated systems to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. If a one-teacher school loses its teacher, instructional capacity falls to zero. A modest system-level substitute pool, housing provision, scheduled relief and cluster support may have greater service value than reducing the nominal ratio elsewhere.

responsibility, reporting, separate, questions require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 91. Non-government and community provision. Non-government and community provision to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Non-government and community provision to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Coverage is to follow the legal and statistical mandate and is clearly labelled. Public funding, employment responsibility and data reporting are separate questions.

status, endorsement, employment, conditions require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 91. Non-government and community provision. Non-government and community provision to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Non-government and community provision to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Their workload, preparation, payment regularity and continuity still affect pupils. Inclusion in statistics must not be presented as a change in governmental employment status or an endorsement of employment conditions.

assignment, allocated, sector, stated require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 91. Non-government and community provision. Non-government and community provision to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Non-government and community provision to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Person headcount is consolidated within the defined population, while assignment FTE is allocated to each sector under a stated rule.

timetable, school, cannot, unauthorised require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 92. Decentralised responsibility. Decentralised responsibility to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Decentralised responsibility to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The national information system must therefore distinguish who owns the record and who is accountable for each transition. A central payroll cannot correct a local timetable; a school cannot fund an unauthorised post.

reports, coverage, reporting, authorities require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 92. Decentralised responsibility. Decentralised responsibility to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Decentralised responsibility to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Local systems can retain operational detail while submitting a controlled set of person, post, assignment and school records. The central publication reports coverage and late or non-reporting authorities.

historical, allocation, unequal, treatment require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 92. Decentralised responsibility. Decentralised responsibility to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Decentralised responsibility to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Otherwise, variation in ratios cannot be separated into legitimate adaptation, historical allocation or unequal treatment.

publish, results, revisions, unresolved require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 93. A sequenced national programme. A sequenced national programme to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A sequenced national programme to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. The second phase is diagnostic: calculate stock, flow, deployment and time measures with uncertainty. The third phase is projection: connect pupil demand, curriculum, workload and exits. The fourth phase is implementation: align training, recruitment, deployment, conditions and finance. The fifth phase is public review: publish results, revisions and unresolved gaps.

improvement, planning, decision, enables require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 93. A sequenced national programme. A sequenced national programme to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A sequenced national programme to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A sophisticated projection cannot repair duplicated persons or invalid school codes. Equally, data cleaning without a decision purpose can consume capacity while vacancies persist. Each data improvement is tied to a planning decision it enables.

responsibility, schedule, therefore, required require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 94. Institutional responsibilities. Institutional responsibilities to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Institutional responsibilities to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Finance authorities control funding and payroll; employer authorities control appointments; districts and schools confirm assignment and service; training authorities govern preparation; statistical offices maintain classifications and publication standards. A written data-responsibility schedule is therefore required.

improves, factual, legitimacy, decisions require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 94. Institutional responsibilities. Institutional responsibilities to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Institutional responsibilities to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Teachers and their organisations hold evidence about workload, feasibility, rural conditions and the consequences of timetable rules. Consultation does not replace governmental responsibility; it improves the factual basis and legitimacy of decisions.[REF-02]

counterfactuals, causal, claims, intended require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 95. Research priorities at the 2013 cut-off. Research priorities at the 2013 cut-off to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Research priorities at the 2013 cut-off to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Evaluation designs need comparison groups or credible counterfactuals where causal claims are intended.

detail, differently, constituted, credentials require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 95. Research priorities at the 2013 cut-off. Research priorities at the 2013 cut-off to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Research priorities at the 2013 cut-off to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Harmonisation is valuable where it preserves national detail and does not imply that differently constituted credentials are equal.

global, estimate, teacher, shortage require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 96. Limitations. Limitations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Limitations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Several sources use different reference years, and school-level distributions are not consistently available. This report therefore provides a measurement and planning architecture rather than a new global estimate of teacher shortage.

require, choices, uncertainties, visible require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 96. Limitations. Limitations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Limitations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. It cannot remove uncertainty from demographic projection or predict individual behaviour. It can require that these choices and uncertainties be visible.

concurrent, change, examining, implementation require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 96. Limitations. Limitations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Limitations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Differences in pupil–teacher ratios, nationally defined preparation status, reported presence or completion do not isolate the effect of one workforce condition from finance, pupil composition, curriculum, school organisation or wider social circumstances. The report therefore does not estimate a causal return to recruitment, class-size change, qualification reform or attendance control. Those questions require designs capable of distinguishing the intervention from concurrent change and of examining implementation over time.

conclusion, substitute, assumed, distribution require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 96. Limitations. Limitations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Limitations to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. National and regional aggregates can indicate where further inquiry is required, but they cannot reveal every school, subject or population gap. Conversely, a small number of documented local cases cannot establish a national pattern. The planning method addresses this limitation by moving from aggregate signal to reconciled school and timetable evidence before an allocation decision is made. Where such evidence is absent, the limitation is a reason to narrow the conclusion, not to substitute an assumed distribution.

funded, without, person, present require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 97. Conclusion. Conclusion to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Conclusion to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Headcount alone cannot establish that condition. Neither can a favourable national ratio, a training credential without its definition, or a funded post without a person present to teach.

remedy, breaks, planning, finding require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 97. Conclusion. Conclusion to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Conclusion to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Where the chain breaks, the break is the planning finding.

protects, aggregate, appearance, balance require Improving Instruction through Structured Observation, Feedback and Professional Learning to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy in ### 97. Conclusion. Conclusion to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. Conclusion to distinguish authority, delivery, distribution and remedy. A system that makes missing assignments, unresolved vacancies, unequal deployment and lost instructional time visible is better placed to act than one that protects an aggregate appearance of balance.